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Intractable conflicts have been with us for quite some time now. As these conflicts pose a serious threat to international peace and security, we may look at them and ask two basic questions; (1) how and why do they start, and (2) how best to end them? Here, I am concerned with the second issue. Intractable conflicts provide many opportunities for conflict management. Numerous international actors, ranging from private individuals to international organizations have an interest in settling or helping to de-escalate intractable conflicts. The main argument I wish to advance is that of all these efforts, mediation offers the most promising approach to managing intractable conflicts.
How can parties in an intractable conflict manage their difficulties? Parties in such conflicts usually think of violence or coercion as the most appropriate response. Other methods may be available to the parties (e.g. negotiation, recourse to the United Nations, or regional organizations, international adjudication, or asking for an international conference). However, given the nature of their conflict, and entrenched hostility, it would appear that the best approach would be that of mediation.
What Mediation Is
William Ury explains that the third side is a self-organizing social movement that works at all levels of the society from the grassroots to the elite. Outsiders can help get the movement started and can give it support, but basically the work is done from within.
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Mediation is a process of conflict management, related to but distinct from the parties' own negotiations, where those in conflict seek the assistance of, or accept an offer of help from, an outsider (whether an individual, an organization, a group, or a state) to change their perceptions or behavior, and to do so without resorting to physical force or invoking the authority of law. The essential characteristics of mediation are highlighted below:
- Mediation is an extension of the parties' own efforts to manage their conflict. Where they fail, a third party (mediator) is called in.
- Thus, mediation involves the intervention of an outsider; an individual, a group or an organization into a conflict between two states or other actors.
- This intervention is non-coercive, non-violent, and ultimately non-binding.
- Mediators enter a conflict, whether internal or international, in order to affect it, change it, resolve it, modify or influence it in some way. Their overriding interest is to reduce violence and achieve a peaceful outcome.
- Mediators bring with them, consciously or otherwise, ideas, knowledge, resources, and prestige. These are used throughout the process to advance the cause of conflict resolution.
- Mediation is a voluntary form of conflict management. This means the adversaries in an intractable conflict choose whether to begin or continue mediation or not, and they retain their control over the outcome (if not always over the process) of their conflict, as well as their freedom to accept or reject any aspects of the process or the ultimate agreement.
- Mediation operates on an ad hoc basis only. Once completed, a mediator departs the arena of the conflict.
All these features make mediation very attractive to parties in an intractable conflict.
Mediation is practiced widely in international relations. It has many advantages that may appeal to parties in a bitter conflict. As described above, it is ad hoc in nature, non-coercive, and voluntary, which makes it less threatening than other possible conflict management options. It is non-evaluative and non-judgmental and it is particularly suited to the reality of international relations, where states and other actors guard their autonomy and independence quite jealously. It offers both parties the prospects of a better outcome without necessarily having any direct meetings with a sworn enemy. It is also a process that leaves the ultimate decision on any outcome to the parties themselves. These aspects of mediation make it a very attractive method for dealing with intractable conflicts
Mediation Behavior
What is it that mediators can actually do in intractable conflicts? Mediators have many resources, strategies and techniques available to them for trying to transform an intractable conflict into a tractable one. Specifically, mediators may use one of the following three strategies in the course of helping to deal with an intractable conflict. They may rely on (a) communication-facilitation strategies, (b) procedural strategies, or (c) directive strategies.
(a) Communication-facilitation strategies describe mediator behavior at the low end of the intervention spectrum. Here a mediator typically adopts a fairly passive role, channeling information to the parties, facilitating cooperation, but exhibiting little control over the more formal process or substance of mediation. This is a very important role in the context of intractable conflicts, where parties in conflict lack direct channels of communication, have different conceptions of the central issues, and/or do not even have the opportunity to explore any options that might benefit both. In such situations, a mediator who can facilitate dialogue and communication, and just carry out information from one to the other, is a prerequisite for an effective process of peacemaking. Norway's intervention in bringing about the Oslo Accords in 1993 is a good example of what we mean by communication-facilitation strategies.
(b) Procedural strategies enable a mediator to bring both parties together, in some neutral environment, where they (i.e., the mediator) exert some control over the conflict management process. Here a mediator may exercise control over timing, issues on the agenda, meeting place and arrangements, media publicity, the distribution of information, and the formality or flexibility of the meetings. A good example of the effective use of procedural strategies is President Carter's control over all aspects of the physical setting at Camp David in 1978.
Procedural strategies give a mediator the opportunity to control aspects of interaction. This is very significant for parties in an intractable conflict who may not have had an opportunity to interact together in any other place save the battlefield. Procedural strategies help to minimize stress and disruption that arise when two or more conflictual parties who have little history of peacemaking get together to deal with their intractable conflict.
(c) Directive strategies are the most powerful form of intervention. Here a mediator works hard to shape the content and nature of a final outcome. This is done by offering each party in conflict incentives, promises of support, or threats of diplomatic sanctions. When a mediator engages in such behavior, the parties are confronted with new resources or the prospect of losing resources. This may change the value they attach to their conflict and produce behavior that is more consonant with the requirements of conflict resolution.
Directive strategies are crucial in any intractable conflict. They allow a mediator to break through a cycle of violence by changing the factors influencing the parties' decision making. By making financial or diplomatic support contingent on co-operation, people who are otherwise opposed to settlement might be persuaded to agree to one. President Carter, for instance, was able to break through both Israeli and Egyptian intransigence at Camp David by promising them both $2 billion each if they would sign a ceasefire agreement. Directive strategies take the form of promises of rewards or threats of withdrawals, if certain agreements are not made or actions are not taken. In either case they are significant in getting parties in an intractable conflict to change their values and behavior.
Who are the Mediators?
Given the complexity of intractable conflicts, the level of violence associated with them, and the dangers they pose, it is remarkable that so many political actors are prepared to intervene in these conflicts to transform them, settle them, or simply to ensure they do not become even more dangerous. It is useful to think of all potential mediators in intractable conflicts as falling into one of the following three categories.
1. Individuals. The traditional image of mediation, one nurtured by the media and popular accounts, is that of a single, usually high-ranking, individual, shuttling from one place to another, trying to search for understanding, restore communication, or help settle their conflict. This image is only partly accurate. In many instances, a mediator is an individual who does not have an official role, or who does not represent his/her country in any capacity. People such as Roger Fisher, Adam Curle, Herb Kelman, Leonard Doob, Jimmy Carter, and other members of the International Negotiation Network at the Carter Center intervene in conflicts in different parts of the world as respected persons with a strong commitment to conflict resolution. They do not do so as government officials.
Individual mediators may hold different beliefs, values, and attitudes, and their mediation strategies may exhibit greater flexibility than official state mediators. What they all have in common is knowledge, experience, and commitment to peaceful conflict resolution. Such mediation is normally carried on without the glare of publicity, and permits the parties to engage in some meaningful dialogue should they choose to. As individuals, mediators do not possess significant resources; their behavior is of necessity limited only to communication and facilitation strategies.
2. States. Today there are 198 sovereign and legally equal states, but with different capabilities, regime-structures, and interests, which interact on the international arena. They are major actors in mediation, and often find themselves having to mediate an intractable conflict that may otherwise threaten their own interests. States, both large and small, frequently have reason or motive to mediate in conflicts, especially when these are in their region or where they may have some interests to promote or protect. Whether it is the United States, Switzerland, Norway, or Algeria, states find themselves very often at the forefront of mediation activities.
When a state mediates an intractable conflict, it does so because it feels the conflict is a genuine threat to international peace and regional stability. When this happens, the state concerned, through its official representatives, may marshal all necessary resources behind a mediation effort and give it all the necessary clout. Unlike other mediators, states have considerable tangible resources, means of mobilizing them, and leaders with a mandate to use these resources. States that become engaged as mediators in an intractable conflict may find that they have to use all their resources in order to facilitate an agreement.
3. Institutions and Organizations. The complexity of intractable conflicts is such that states can no longer meet all the mediation requirements, nor facilitate a settlement when conflicts are long, drawn out, and intense. Other bodies and organizations are coming in to offer and deliver different mediation services. We have witnessed a phenomenal growth in the number of international, transnational and other non-state actors as mediators in the last decade or so. These functional actors, many of them falling under the multi-track umbrella, or track II diplomacy, have become an indispensable adjunct to traditional mediation by individuals and states.
Two kinds of actors are important here. They are: (a) specialized non-governmental actors committed to conflict resolution (such as Amnesty International, International Alert, the Carter Center), and (b) a wide variety of religious (the Quakers, Islamic Conference Organization, the Community of Sante Egidio) and civic and humanitarian organizations (The International Committee of the Red Cross, Center for Humanitarian Mediation, Oxfam) whose main concern is to heal, to deal with some of the basic issues in conflict, and achieve reconciliation, and changed attitudes, not just settlement of a conflict.
All these actors have some decided advantages in intractable conflicts; they operate informally and secretly, thus the parties need fear no loss of face. They offer services that other mediators cannot offer, and they may find it easier to gain access to the parties where formal diplomats may be viewed with suspicion if not downright hostility. Such actors can be less inhibited in their approach to a conflict, and can afford the luxury of appealing to the parties by promising them to work on all levels of their conflict and to achieve a long lasting solution to their problems.
The United Nations--and other international organizations-- also provide mediation. UN Political Affairs Officer, Nita Yawanarajah, provides a description of UN mediation below:
| In the United Nations, the act of mediation describes the political skills utilized in efforts carried out by the United Nations Secretary-General or his representatives, through the exercise of the Secretary General's "Good Offices," without the use of force and in keeping with the principles of the UN Charter. The United Nations mediator engages in a process as a third party, when those in conflict either seek or accept the assistance of the United Nations with the aim to prevent, manage or resolve a conflict. Mediation skills, therefore, could be employed in all of the following contexts:
A United Nations mediation mandate, however, is more specifically defined. When the United Nations is called upon to mediate a resolution to a conflict, the parties accept what is called a mediation mandate. This means that they accept that the UN mediator is there to help and provide them them find solutions to resolve their conflict. A United Nations mediation mandate provides the authority for the Secretary-General or his envoys to:
meet and listen to all parties to the conflict;
consult all relevant parties for the resolution of the conflict;
propose ideas and solutions to facilitate the resolution to the conflict
While the final outcome has to be agreed to by the parties, being a mediator entails a much greater responsibility and involvement in the outcome of the conflict.
As in other mediations, a United Nations mediated outcome is not binding, unless the Security Council takes actions to enforce the agreement. Final implementation of the mediated agreement rests upon the commitment of the parties.
A United Nations mediation mandate is particularly useful to the parties as it gives them the opportunity to avail themselves of the experience and best practices that the United Nations ,as an organisation, has gained in the field of conflict resolution.
--Nita Yawanarajah, Project Manager, UN Peacemaker Databank, Policy Planning Unit, Department of Political Affairs, United Nations
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Conditions for Successful Mediations in Intractable Conflicts
Mediation is an effective and useful way of dealing with intractable conflicts. This is not to suggest that every intractable conflict can be mediated. Many conflicts are just too intense, the parties too entrenched and the behaviour just too violent for any mediator to achieve very much. Some intractable conflicts go on and on with little signs of abatement. They cease to become intractable only when there is a major systemic change (e.g. change of leaders, collapse of country, etc.). How then can we distinguish between conflicts that can be mediated and those that cannot? When should mediators enter an intractable conflict, and how can they increase their chances of success?
1. Mediators can engage in an intractable conflict only after a thorough and complete analysis of the conflict, issues at stake, context and dynamics, parties' grievances, etc. Intractable conflicts are complex and multi-layered. A mediation initiative is more likely to be successful if it is predicated on knowledge and understanding rather than on good intentions only. A good analysis and a thorough understanding of all aspects of the conflict are important prerequisites for successful mediation in intractable conflicts.
2. Mediation must take place at an optimal or ripe moment. Early mediation may be premature and late mediation may face too many obstacles. A ripe moment describes a phase in the life cycle of the conflict where the parties feel exhausted and hurt, or where they may not wish to countenance any further losses and are prepared to commit to a settlement, or at least believe one to be possible. In destructive and escalating conflicts, mediation can have any chance of success only if it can capture a particular moment when the adversaries, for a variety of reasons, appear most amenable to change. Timing of intervention in an intractable conflict is an issue of crucial importance, and one that must be properly assessed by any would be mediator.
3. Given the nature and complexity of intractable conflicts, successful mediation requires a co-ordinated approach between different aspects of intervention. Mediation here requires leverage and resources to nudge the parties toward a settlement, but also acute psychological understanding of the parties' feelings and grievances. The kind of mediation we are talking about here is mediation that is embedded in various disciplinary frameworks, ranging from problem-solving workshops to more traditional diplomatic methods. No one aspect or form of behavior will suffice to turn an intractable conflict around. Diverse and complementary methods, an interdisciplinary focus, and a full range of intervention methods responding to the many concerns and fears of the adversaries, are required to achieve some accommodation between parties in an intractable conflict.
4. Mediating intractable conflicts require commitment, resources, persistence, and experience. Mediators of high rank or prestige are more likely to possess these attributes and thus are more likely to be successful in intractable conflicts. Such mediators have the capacity to appeal directly to the domestic constituency and build up support for some peace agreement. Influential, high ranking or prestigious mediators have more at stake, can marshal more resources, have better information, and can devote more time to an intractable conflict. Such mediators can work toward achieving some visible signs of progress in the short term, and identify steps that need to be taken to deal with the issues of a longer term peace objectives. Influential mediators can work better within the constraints of intractable conflicts, and more likely to elicit accommodative responses from the adversaries.
5. Mediation in intractable conflicts is more likely to be successful when there are recognizable leaders within each party, where the leaders are accepted as legitimate by all concerned, and where they have considerable control over their territory. An intractable conflict between parties with competing leaders and constituents (e.g. Northern Ireland) can prove very difficult to deal with. Where there are recognizable leaders, each from the mainstream of their respective community, and where each embodies the aspirations and expectations of their respective community, provides mediators with individuals who may have a serious impact on official diplomacy. Where there are competing leadership factions, state institutions, and governance capacity are all too uncertain, and the chances of successful mediation decline sharply.
6. Mediation in intractable conflicts is more likely to be effective if there are no sections in each community committed to the continuation of violence. Such parties are usually described as spoilers. Spoilers in such a context have much to lose from a peaceful outcome and much to gain from the continuation of violence. Their presence and activities constitute a major obstacle to any mediation effort.
7. Where an intractable conflict involves a major power, or major powers have interests (vital or otherwise) at stake, it is very unlikely that mediation will be attempted, and if attempted, very unlikely that it will succeed. The involvement of major powers in any capacity in an intractable conflict poses too serious a constraint on any mediation effort. A major power involvement in an intractable conflict provides a clear indication of the difficulty of initiating any form of mediation.
All these factors provide some guidance on when mediation might make a contribution to intractable conflicts, and when this will be extremely difficult. Surely other factors are present too, factors such as commitment to mediation and willingness to achieve a suitable outcome, desire to stop a cycle of violence, etc. These may be hard to identify and assess, but their presence or absence will surely affect the process and outcome of any mediation effort.
Conclusion
Intractable conflicts are driven by antagonists with a strong sense of identity, grievance of some sort (economic or political), and a desire to use violence to change the status quo. In places as diverse as Israel, Sudan, Northern Ireland, Congo, Cyprus, Korea, Kashmir, and many others, intractable conflicts are responsible for continued violence and loss of lives. These conflicts threaten regional order and international stability. It is hard to get out of an intractable situation. Hard, but not impossible. There is nothing pre-ordained about the path of any conflict, intractable or otherwise. What I have tried to suggest above is that mediation may offer the prospect of escaping the dilemmas of intractability.
Mediation offers the possibility of a jointly acceptable outcome without giving in on one's core values and beliefs. Under some conditions mediation can actually break through an intractable cycle of violence. The availability of suitable mediators may help to transform an intractable conflict and produce a sustained agreement. For this to happen certain conditions have to be present. When the circumstances are indeed propitious, few processes can do more to reduce intractability of a conflict than a well planned mediation. We should be aware of these conditions and do our best to bring intractable conflicts to an end.
Use the following to cite this article:
Bercovitch, Jacob. "International Mediation and Intractable Conflict." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: January 2004 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/med_intractable_conflict/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
UNICEF Innocenti Research Center. International Criminal Justice and Children.
Available at: http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/ICJC.pdf.
a report highlighting children�s specific experience in conflict and their special needs in post-conflict human rights accountability mechanisms.
Donahey, Scott and Sandra A. Selllers. "Can Three-Mediator Panels Resolve 'Impossible' Disputes?." , February 1, 2001
Available at: http://www.tzllp.com/content/articles/Jmb1169.pdf.
An analysis of how a seemingly intractable conflict can be resolved through three-way mediation.
Stepp, Jessica A. How Does the Mediation Process Work?.
Available at: http://www.mediate.com/articles/steppJ.cfm?nl=18.
This articles gives an over view of the six steps to formal mediation: 1) introductory remarks; 2) statement of the problem by the parties; 3) information gathering time; 4) identification of the problems; 5) bargaining and generating options; and 6) reaching an agreement.
Offline (Print) Sources
Serwer, Daniel. "A Bosnian Federation Memoir." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
Written by the US State Department's official primarily responsible for the Bosnian Federation in the mid-1990s, he traveled to Bosnia numerous times during that time to try to avert a return to the 1993-4 war. The chapter chronicles the multiparty efforts to maintain the peace.
Hare, Paul J. "Angola: The Lusaka Peace Process." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
After violence resumed after the 1992 elections in Angola, the international community again played a central role in bringing the parties back to the negotiating table. This chapter describes the international effort to establish the Lusaka peace process and describes its principles.
Maoz, Zeev and Ben D. Mor. Bound by Struggle: The Strategic Evolution of Enduring International Rivalries. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, October 2002.
Solomon, Richard H. "Bringing Peace to Cambodia." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter discusses the role of the United Nations, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), regional powers, and the United States in bringing about peace in Cambodia.
Smith, Gordon and John Hay. "Canada and the Crisis in Eastern Zaire." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: USIP Press, 1999.
"The object in this chapter is to explain how Canada, of all countries, came therefore to take the lead in attempting an armed intervention in eastern Zaire. It will describe the challenges of middle-power management of a multistate coalition, the confusion of facts on the ground in a complex emergency, and the lessons that might flow from the ambiguous conclusion of this unusual episode."
DeSoto, Alvaro. "Ending Violent Conflict in El Salvador." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
In this chapter, The UN Secretary-General's representative at the peace talks describes the role of the United Nations in ending the civil war.
McDougall, Barbara. "Haiti: Canada's Role in the OAS." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter describes the OAS' first effort to intervene on behalf of a member state to restore democracy.
Bercovitch, Jacob. "International Mediation and Dispute Settlement: Evaluating the Conditions for Successful Mediation." Negotiation Journal 7:1, January 1, 1991.
This article focuses on international mediation and highlights, through an original data set, the determinants of successful mediation in international relations.
Zartman, I. William and Saadia Touval. "International Mediation in the Post-Cold War Era." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, DC : United States Institute of Peace Press, September 1996.
"Mediation is best thought of as a mode of negotiation in which a third party helps the parties find a solution which they cannot find by themselves." [p. 446] Zartman and Touval focus on mediation of violent, international, or civil conflicts. They describe why third-parties decide to mediate, why and when conflicting parties accept mediation, and what factors produce effective mediation.
Kriesberg, Louis, Terrell A. Northrup and Stuart J. Thorson, eds. Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation. New York: Syracuse University Press, October 1989.
Intractable Conflicts brings together essays from a number of authors who explore intractability through diverse theoretical frameworks and case histories. These essays were first presented at a conference sponsored by Syracuse University's Program on the Analysis and Resolution of Conflicts.
Click here for more info.
Townsend-Gault, Ian and Hasjim Djalal. "Managing Potential Conflicts in the South China Sea: Informal Diplomacy for Conflict Prevention." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter describes efforts at preventative diplomacy in the South China Sea, an area claimed by many states in the region due to its potential wealth.
Etzioni, Amitai. "Mediation as a World Role for the United States." In The Handbook of Interethnic Coexistence. Edited by Weiner, Eugene, ed. New York: Continuum Publishing, 1998.
The author examines the United States' potential to mediate international conflicts in the post-Cold war era. He begins by noting that the U.S. has already served as mediator in a number of cases.
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Bercovitch, Jacob and Jeffrey Z. Rubin, eds. Mediation in International Relations: Multiple Approaches to Conflict Management, Reprint Edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1994.
"Mediation is one of the most important management strategies in international relations, yet it has been the focus of relatively little scholarship. International mediation may involve private individuals, academic scholars, small or large states, transnational and international organizations, and yet the nature and consequences of such variation have yet to be examined systematically. The purpose of this book is to analyze the mediating efforts of these actors, and to consider their contributions to international peace and security." --Harvard Law School
Greig, J. M. "Moments of Opportunity: Recognizing Conditions of Ripeness for International Mediation between Enduring Rivals." Journal of Conflict Resolution 45:6, December 1, 2001.
This article examines the factors that influence both short term and long term mediation success.
Greig, J. M. "Moments of Opportunity: Recognizing Conditions of Ripeness for International Mediation between Enduring Rivals." Journal of Conflict Resolution 45:6, December 1, 2001.
This article examines the factors that influence both short term and long term mediation success.
Pastor, Robert A. "More and Less Than It Seemed: The Carter-Nunn-Powell Mediation in Haiti, 1994." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
"The mediation in Haiti was a superb case study-but not of how to combine diplomacy with force, but why it is so difficult, pracitcally impossible, particularly for a democracy, to combine these two elements into an effective strategy." It was innovative in a number of ways. First, the UN Security Council had declared the overthrow of a democratic government a threat to peace. Second, mediation was conducted by private citizens and a senator sent by Clinton. Third, why did this quasi-governmental mediation team succeed when official missions from international organizations and national governments failed?
Ajello, Adlo. "Mozambique: Implementation of the 1992 Peace Agreement." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter, written by the UN special representative to Mozambique, describes the effort to implement the 1992 peace accord.
Aall, Pamela, Fen Osler Hampson and Chester A. Crocker. "Multiparty Mediation and the Conflict Cycle." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Aall, Pamela, Fen Osler Hampson and Chester A. Crocker, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1999.
"[W]e seek in this chapter to explore the possibility that multiparty mediation may add further weight to the need for a synthesis between what might be called the structuralist and social-psychological paradigms of mediation. We look at multiparty mediation from the standpoint of timing and conflict cycles, and seek to explore how the comparative contributions of different actors may unfold and what the strengths of different mediators are....The chapter concludes with a moregeneral discussion of the particular practical and operational challenges posed by multiparty mediation and the implications for policy...."
Arthur, Paul. "Multiparty Mediation in Northern Ireland." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Pamela Aall and Chester A. Crocker, eds. Washington, DC: United States of Institute Peace, January 1, 1999.
This chapter discusses the complex dealings and issues of representation that occurred in Northern Ireland during the process that led to the Good Friday Agreement. This agreement could only be reached through a complicated multiparty mediation that included representatives from several factionalized stakeholder groups in the region. The article briefly considers the relationship between political leaders and their constituents, noting how leaders? perceptions of their constituents affected their positions on important issues. It concentrates primarily on the bonds that moderate stakeholder representatives (leaders) formed during the peace process, which made the eventual agreement possible.
Bercovitch, Jacob and Richard Jackson. "Negotiation or Mediation?: An Exploration of Factors Affecting the Choice of Conflict Management in International Conflict." Negotiation Journal 17:1, 2001.
The author uses an original data set to show the differing uses of mediation and negotiation in the international community. He concludes that negotiation is typically used in less severe circumstances, and that more intense, complex disputes are dealt with through mediation.
Bailey, Sydney D. "Non-Official Mediation in Disputes: Reflections on the Quaker Experience." International Affairs 61:2, 1985.
This article presents a discussion of the role of non-official mediators in international conflicts, such as Quakers. This article represents a relatively early take on the potential role of NGOs in peacemaking activities, as NGOs were just emerging as significant international actors in the mid-1980s. The author notes that the UN was not entirely prepared to relate to, nor effectively utilize the contributions of, NGOs at this point in time.
Crocker, Chester A. "Peacemaking in Southern Africa: The Namibia-Angola Settlement of 1988." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Aall, Pamela, Fen Osler Hampson and Chester A. Crocker, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter describes the long multilateral effort to bring peace to southwestern Africa.
Burton, John W. Resolving Deep-Rooted Conflict: A Handbook. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987.
Bercovitch, Jacob, ed. Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, October 1, 1996.
This edited volume focuses on various aspects of mediation in the international arena. The work is organized thematically into four parts and consists of chapters by seventeen authors who have done significant work in the field.
Maresca, John J. "Resolving the Conflict Over Nagorno-Karabakh: Lost Opportunities for International Conflict Resolution." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
The chapter first analyzes the historical origins of the conflict and highlights the opportunities the international community has missed to help bring about an end to the conflict.
Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall. "Rising to the Challenge of Multiparty Mediation: Institutional Readiness, Policy Context, and Mediator Relationships." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, DC: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter provides an overview of research findings on the topic of multiparty mediation. The authors discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of having multiple mediators involved in a peacemaking process.
Bercovitch, Jacob, ed. Studies in International Mediation: Essays in Honor of Jeffrey Z. Rubin. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, March 2003.
This volume brings together essays from a number of leading international relations scholars. The primary concern of the work is the effectivenes of international mediation and how best to achieve it. The three key themes throughout the work are the determinants of successful mediation, the range of mediation methods in use, and new strategies for intervention.
Rothchild, Donald S. "Successful Mediation: Lord Carrington and the Rhodesian Settlement." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
This chapter chronicles the British contribution in mediating the Rhodesian (Zimbabwean) civil war.
Einaudi, Luigi R. "The Ecuador-Peru Peace Process." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
"This chapter discusses the period from the renewal of fighting in 1995 to the signing of the comprehensive settlement almost four years later....[I]t sketches the background of the conflict and briefly summarizes the evolving positions of the parties and the details of the settlement. In keeping with this volume's concentration on multiparty mediation, the primary focus here is on the role of hte guarantors."
de Chastelain, John. "The Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
"The aim of this chapter is to review the period between the start of the work of the International Body in December 1995 and the attainment of the Good Friday Agreement of April 10, 1998. The chapter is written from the personal perspective of the author, who was a member of the internaitonal team involved in both the decommissioning review and the chairing of various aspects of the political process, as well as the chairman of the decommissioning body still engaged in working to achieve its mandate."
Egeland, Jan. "The Oslo Accord: Multiparty Facilitation through the Norwegian Channel." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter, by a Norwegian participant in the mediation process, discusses the role of Norway and other international actors in producing the Oslo Accord between Israel and the Palestinians.
Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall. "The Practitioner's Perspective." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter is a summary of an informal one-day meeting of practitioners involved in multiparty mediation organized by USIP for facilitate a discussion of experiences and lessons learned.
Anstee, Margaret J. "The United Nations in Angola: Post-Bicesse Implementation." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
The author, the UN Secretary-General's special representative in Angola, describes the complex multilateral effort to bring an end to the civil war in Angola.
Weiss, Joshua. "Trajectories Toward Peace: Mediator Sequencing Strategies in Intractable Communal Conflicts." Negotiation Journal 19:2, 2003.
"The author identifies three distinct mediation sequencing strategies used in intractable communal conflicts: the gradualism model; a 'boulder-in-the-road' approach; and the 'committee' strategy. Using case examples of contemporary mediation efforts, he describes the three approaches and their advantages and disadvantages. A wider-angle approach to the differences in how mediators and conflicting parties achieve peace in these destructive conflicts is useful for both scholarly inquiry and practice." --Abstract
Bercovitch, Jacob. "Understanding Mediation's Role in Preventative Diplomacy." Negotiation Journal 12:3, 1996.
Bercovitch examines 241 international conflicts occurring from 1945 to 1990. Mediation was attempted, often multiple times, in 60% of those conflicts. Bercovitch identifies nearly 600 mediation attempts made over the course of these conflicts. Based on an analysis of the mediation attempts, the author identifies a number of factors which correlate strongly with successful mediation.
Kleiboer, Marieke. "Understanding Success and Failure of International Mediation." Journal of Conflict Resolution 40:2, June 1996.
This article reviews and assesses three aspects of current research on the course and outcomes of international mediation. First, the vague notion of mediation success is addressed. Second, the key contextual and process factors believed to explain the outcomes of international mediation are discussed. Finally, the author addresses some concerns about current theorizing on the subject, particularly the assumptions that underlie current research.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Posthumus, Bram. "Chad and Libya: Good Neighbors, Enemies, Brothers - But Never Trusting Friends." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the relationship between Chad and Libya. It details the decades-long history of conflicts between the two nations and the various conflict management steps that have been taken to control them.
Havermans, Jos. "Congo Brazzaville: A Democratization Process Scourged by Violence." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville is the capital) and its attempt at transitioning to democracy in the 1990s, despite ongoing violence.
van Beurden, Jos. "Ethiopia/Eritrea: End in Sight to a Devastating War?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the ongoing conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea. The paper outlines the political dynamics and the border dispute that lie at the center of the conflict. In addition, the author details various attempts at international mediation by outside actors as well as the efforts of nongovernmental organizations working in each country.
Mateeva, Anna. "Georgia: Peace Remains Elusive in Ethnic Patchwork." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses ongoing tensions and problems in the Georgian region of Abkhazia, which are preventing the etablishment of a stable peace. The paper details the political dynamics of the situation, as well as describing a variety of peacemaking activities by nongovernmental organizations working in the region.
Toonen, Emmy. "Ghana: Mediating a Way Out of Complex Ethnic Conflicts." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the dynamics of ethnic tension in Ghana, and discusses possibilities for the nation to utilize mediation as a way out of its complex ethnic struggles.
Bayer, Resat. "Lord Carrington's Mediation of the Rhodesian Settlement: Zimbabwe's Second Chimurenga Concludes." Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Vol. 1, No. 4 , November 1998
Available at: http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/1_4bayer.htm.
This article includes a chronological history of the conflict in Rhodesia and discussion of the negotiations that led to the settlement of the conflict. Then the author goes on to analyze the role of the mediator in these negotiations and the characteristics of the process in Rhodesia.
Posthumus, Bram. "Mali: Successful Mediation Effort Could Lead to Lasting Peace." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlies the dynamics of the rebel insurgency in Mali in the early 1990s and the subsequent peace efforts that took place. It is noted that the mediated peace settlement has been successful mostly because of inclusive stakeholder representation and participation.
Mateeva, Anna. "Nagorno Karabach: A Straightforward Territorial Conflict." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the dynamics of the conflict over Nagorno-Karabach in which ethnic Armenians have been struggling for control since the late 1980s. There have been a variety of attempts to mediate this conflict, particularly in the form of multi-track diplomacy, but as of 2002 it remained at a stalemate.
Bossart, Donald. Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: Lessons for Mediators.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper is an edited transcript of a talk given by Donald Bossart for the Intractable Conflict/Constructive Confrontation Project on April 10, 1993. It is a case-study of Southern Rhodesia's move to become Zimbabwe and illustrates how different perspectives influence conflict--internationally as well as locally.
Posthumus, Bram. "Sierra Leone: Real Battles Lie Ahead." , 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the history of violent conflict in Sierra Leone, including its connection to events in neighboring Liberia. The author outlines the various efforts that have been made to bring peace to the west African nation.
Slim, Randa M. and Faredun Hodizoda. "Tajikistan: From Civil War to Peacebuilding." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the civil war in Tajikstan, which broke out soon after the nation declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The majority of the article focuses on the successful peace process initiated by the United Nations that led to the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan in 1997.
United States Institute of Peace. Zimbabwe and the Prospects for Nonviolent Political Change.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr109.html.
This USIP special report details the efforts of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), who have been employing nonviolent methods to try and instigate political change in Zimbabwe. The report examines the roles and strategies of key domestic actors in recent years and provides insights into the possible nature of transition. The conclusion argues that international mediation must be coupled with forms of domestic pressure if a transitional authority (the preferred peaceful option) is to be attained.
Offline (Print) Sources
Bercovitch, Jacob. "Conflict Management and the Oslo Experience: Assessing the Success of Israeli-Palestinian Peacemaking." International Negotiation 2:2, 1997.
The Oslo experience and the signing of an agreement between Israel and the PLO is used as an empirical case study to highlight the nature of successful mediation in international conflicts. To provide a structure for the analysis, the concept of intractable conflicts and their management is utilized. Factors affecting the mediation of intractable conflicts are grouped into two clusters: (a) contextual factors and (b) process factors. The paper focuses on the changing balance of contextual factors and how these created a ripe moment for mediation, and on the particular way the mediation process was carried out. Timing, ripeness and secrecy are identified as the crucial variables that produced the breakthrough in Oslo.
Hume, Cameron R. Ending Mozambique's War: The Role of Mediation and Good Offices. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, November 1, 1994.
This first-hand account of the Mozambique mediations offers intriguing details that illustrate the complexity of the multi-track mediation process. Hume, who was a participant observer in the Rome-based peace talks, relates the stages of the process to the principles of conflict management, negotiation, and mediation in a clear and graceful style. He delineates the separate roles played by the parties themselves (the government and RENAMO), the outside governments that intervened, and the mediators, with a special focus on the unique element in this peace process: the involvement of a private voluntary organization, the Community of Sant'Egidio.
Bose, Sumantra. "Flawed Mediation, Chaotic Implementation: The 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Peace Agreement." In Ending Civil Wars: The Implentation of Peace Agreements. Edited by Rothchild, Donald S., Elizabeth M. Cousens and Stephen John Stedman, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
This example provides two key lessons on designing peace agreements. First, mediation and implementation must be connected, namely the Tamil Tigers were not part of the mediation process which hindered implementation. Second, the intervention of a regional hegemon can be controversial because they are often not seen as neutral.
Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, January 1, 2000.
This major edited volume presents a broad look at the process of international mediation and the significant amount of complexity the process presents. The essays and case studies in this volume were written by experienced international mediators and include a combination of straightforward analysis and engaging narratives.
Mooradian, Moorad and Daniel Druckman. "Hurting Stalemate or Mediation?: The Conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, 1990-95." Journal of Peace Research 36:6, November 1, 1999.
This article presents a comparison of the impacts of six attempts at mediating the conflict over the political status of Nagorno-Karabakh in the Caucasus region of the former Soviet Union. Each mediation attempted to bring the key parties (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Nagorno-Karabakh) to the negotiating table. The data analysis produced from this research shows that a mutually hurting stalemate is indeed a condition for negotiating a ceasefire and reduced violence between warring parties.
Jackson, Richard. "Managing Africa's Violent Conflicts." Peace and Change 25:2, April 1, 2000.
"Conflict management research has not often compared the effectiveness of different methods such as negotiation and mediation. Consequently, applying conflict management techniques to international disputes has sometimes been ad hoc and ineffectual. This article compares the effectiveness of negotiation and mediation in African conflict management in the period 1945 to 1995. Utilizing an original data set on cases of negotiation and mediation, the analysis indicates that, overall, bilateral negotiations are more successful than mediation. However, negotiation is difficult to initiate in cases of intense, intractable civil conflicts, and works best in cases of interstate disputes. Given that Africa's worst conflicts are all intense, long-running civil wars, improving the effectiveness of mediation in the region is a top priority." --Blackwell Publishers
Wehr, Paul and John Paul Lederach. "Mediating Conflict in Central America." Journal of Peace Research 28:1, 1991.
This paper examines the process, structure, and context of the Esquipulas peace process in Nicaragua. The authors analyze the use of mediation as a tool for conflict management in this case, concluding that Esquipulas represents a valuable model for the use of mediation and for regional conflict resolution.
Richmond, Oliver P. Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the United Nations. Frank Cass Publications, November 1, 1998.
"This study investigates the Cypriot parties views of the process of peacemaking in order to shed light on the Cyprus problem, and on the theoretical debates on mediation, from a new angle. Part I examines the theoretical debates surrounding mediation and develops the perspective provided by an examination of the views of the mediated upon. This section provides the theoretical framework for the following case study. Part II provides an historical analysis until the outbreak of conflict in late 1963. This provides the background for the case study in Part III, which examines the peacemaking process from 1964 to 1994, utilizing the conceptual framework developed in Part I." -Amazon.com Click here for more info.
Bartoli, Andrea . "Mediating Peace in Mozambique: The Role of the Community of Sant'Egidio ." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, DC: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter discusses the process of mediating a peace settlement in the Mozambique civil war, focusing particularly on a small community organization that played a surprisingly critical role. The Community of Sant'Egidio was one of the most effective members of the mediation team in this process. This chapter details why that was the case.
Stein, Kenneth and Samuel Lewis. "Mediation in the Middle East." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
This chapter considers the necessary elements of successful mediation in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The authors examine the mediator's role in bringing about and sustaining peace talks, the effect of timing and ripeness on the success of mediation, the challenges of setting up a negotiation structure, the component of high-level engagement, and the importance of good intelligence on the part of the mediator. The chapter concludes with some key observations on the role of mediation in the negotiation process.
Stedman, Stephen John. Peacemaking in Civil War: International Mediation in Zimbabwe, 1974-1980. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, January 1, 1990.
"Challenging the literatures on war termination, civil war, and revolution-which typically dismiss the possibility of negotiated settlement-Stephen Stedman examines the problem of negotiations during civil wars and demonstrates that third party mediation can help resolve such conflicts."
Azar, Edward E. and Rick Ayre. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases. Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Press, April 1990.
This book focuses on protracted social conflicts and their management. Using case studies (Lebanon, Sri Lanka and the Falklands/Malvinas), it presents insights into how problem-solving forums can be used as effective tools in controlling and resolving identity, security and post-colonial disputes.
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