Additional insights into reconciliation are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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In the last few years, reconciliation has become one of the "hottest" topics in the increasingly "hot" field of conflict resolution. It refers to a large number of activities that help turn the temporary peace of an agreement which ends the fighting into a lasting end to the conflict itself. Through reconciliation and the related processes of restorative and/or transitional justice, parties to the dispute explore and overcome the pain brought on during the conflict and find ways to build trust and live cooperatively with each other.
What is Reconciliation
Reconciliation is a rather new concept in the new field of conflict resolution. It is not mentioned once in a book I wrote in 1995. In the one I published in 2001, it was the most frequently cited concept.
As is the case with any new concept, there is no standard definition that all scholars and practitioners rely on. However, almost everyone acknowledges that it includes at least four critical components identified by John Paul Lederach -- truth, justice, mercy, and peace.
Lederach's use of the term "mercy" suggests that the ideas behind reconciliation have religious roots. It is a critical theological notion in all the Abrahamic faiths and is particularly important to Evangelical Christians as part of their building a personal relationship with God. For those who ask "what would Jesus do," reconciliation is often not just an important issue, but the most critical one in any conflict.
In recent years, reconciliation has also become an important matter for people who approach conflict resolution from a secular perspective. For them, the need for reconciliation grows out of the pragmatic, political realities of any conflict resolution process (see the next section).
Conflict resolution professionals use a number of techniques to try to foster reconciliation. By far the most famous of them is South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission that held hearings into the human rights abuses during the apartheid era and held out the possibility of amnesty to people who showed genuine remorse for their actions. Since the TRC was created in 1995, as many as 20 other such commissions have been created in other countries, which experienced intense domestic strife. These projects bring people on both sides of a conflict together to explore their mutual fear and anger and, more importantly, to begin building bridges of trust between them. Despite the violence in the region since 2000, some of the most promising examples of this kind of reconciliation have occurred between Israelis and Palestinians. For more than a decade, Oases of Peace (Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salaam) have been bringing together students and teachers from both sides of the divide. Similarly, the Seeds of Peace summer camp in Otisfield, Maine (U.S.) has served as a "safe place" for Israeli and Palestinian teenagers to spend extended periods of time together. Yet others have tried more unusual strategies. At Search for Common Ground, we make soap operas with conflict resolution themes for teenagers aired on radio in Africa and on television in Macedonia. Similarly, Benetton sponsored a summer camp for teenage basketball players from the former Yugoslavia, one of many examples in which people have tried to use sports to build bridges, ironically, in part through competition. Last but by no means least, it should be obvious from the above that many people have used religion as a vehicle to help forge reconciliation. Thus, the Rev. John Dawson has made reconciliation between blacks and whites the heart of his 20-year ministry in South Central Los Angeles. Similarly, Corrymeela is an interfaith religious retreat center, which has spent the last 25 years facilitating meetings between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland.
There is at least one common denominator to all these approaches to reconciliation. They all are designed to lead individual men and women to change the way they think about their historical adversaries. As a result, reconciliation occurs one person at a time and is normally a long and laborious process.
Why Reconciliation Matters
Reconciliation matters because the consequences of not reconciling can be enormous. In Fen Osler Hampson's terms, too many peace agreements are "orphaned."[1] That is, the parties reach an agreement that stops the fighting but does little to take the parties toward what Kenneth Boulding called stable peace, which can only occur when the issues that gave rise to the conflict in the first place are addressed to the satisfaction of all.[2]
Without reconciliation, the best one can normally hope for is the kind of armed standoff we have seen in Cyprus for nearly 30 years. In 1964, the rival Turk and Greek forces agreed to a cease fire, a temporary partition of the island, and the introduction of United Nations Peacekeeping forces. Since then, little progress has been made toward conflict resolution; in fact, it is all but impossible for Greek Cypriots to visit the Turkish part of the island and vice versa.
At worst, without reconciliation, the fighting can break out again, as we have seen since the tragic beginning of the second Intifada in Israel/Palestine since 2000. Despite Oslo and other agreements and despite some serious attempts at reconciliation at the grassroots level, the parties made little progress toward achieving stable peace until 2000 when Palestinian frustrations finally boiled over in a new and bloodier round of violence.
Most examples fall somewhere between Cyprus and Israel/Palestine. For instance, because Catholics and Protestants have not made much progress toward reconciliation, every dispute between them since 1998 has threatened to undermine the accomplishments of the Good Friday Agreement which put at least a temporary end to "the troubles" in Northern Ireland.
What Individuals Can Do
At the most basic level, reconciliation is all about individuals. It cannot be forced on people. They have to decide on their own whether to forgive and reconcile with their one-time adversaries.
Nothing shows this better than the remarkable documentary, "Long Night's Journey Into Day" which chronicles four cases considered by the South African Truth and Reconciliation Committee.[3] The final one involves a young black man who had been a police officer and helped lure seven activists into a trap in which they were all killed by the authorities. The last scene of the sequence shows a meeting he held with the mothers of the seven boys in which he begs for their forgiveness. It is clear that, unlike one of his white colleagues who is interviewed earlier, his confession and his remorse are heart-felt. Still, at first the mothers, whose pain remains raw more than a decade after the murders, refuse to forgive him. Then, one of them asks if his first name means "prayer" and when he says it does, you can literally watch the mothers draw on their own Christianity and find the mental "space" to forgive the former officer.
What States Can Do
By its very nature, reconciliation is a "bottom up" process and thus cannot be imposed by the state or any other institution. However, as the South African example shows, governments can do a lot to promote reconciliation and provide opportunities for people to come to grips with the past.
In South Africa, the TRC heard testimony from over 22,000 individuals and applications for amnesty from another 7,000. The TRC's success and the publicity surrounding it have led new regimes in such diverse countries as East Timor and Yugoslavia to form truth commissions of one sort or another. The idea of restorative justice, in general, is gaining more widespread support, especially following the creation of the International Criminal Court. And, truth commissions need not be national. A number of organizations in Greensboro, North Carolina, have come together to try to achieve reconciliation in a city which has been at the forefront of many violent racial incidents since the first sit-ins there in 1960.
What Third Parties Can Do
It is probably even harder for outsiders to spark reconciliation than it is for governments.
Most successful efforts at reconciliation have, in fact, been led by teams of "locals" from both sides of the divide. Thus, the TRC was chaired by Desmond Tutu, a black clergyman, while its vice president was Alex Boraine, a white pastor. Both were outspoken opponents of apartheid, but they made certain to include whites who had been supporters of the old regime until quite near its end.
The one exception to this rule is the role that NGOs can play in peacebuilding. The Mennonite Central Council, in particular, has focused a lot of its work in Central and South America on reconciliation. And even though it rarely uses the term, Search for Common Ground develops news programs and soap operas with conflict resolution themes in such countries as Macedonia and Burundi.
Resolution Isn't Cozy
Even though reconciliation mostly involves people talking to each other, it is not easy to achieve. Rather it is among the most difficult things people are ever called on to do emotionally. Victims have to forgive oppressors. The perpetrators of crimes against humanity have to admit their guilt and, with it, their arrogance.
But perhaps the difficulty of reconciling can best be seen in the case of the former police officer and the seven mothers mentioned above. Most of them broke down and had to be escorted out of the room during the hearing at the TRC on the request for amnesty by two of their killers. And, their pain and anger are inescapable at the beginning of their meeting with the officer. It is clear that it is not easy for them to forgive him; but it is also abundantly clear how far doing so relieves them of the pain they have carried inside them for years.
[1] Fen Osler Hampson, Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace, 1996).
[2] Kenneth Boulding, Stable Peace Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1978.
[3] Long Night's Journey Into Day, a documentary film written and directed by Frances Reid and Deborah Hoffmann, produced by Frances Reid, Iris Films. Information about the film and a lot of associated information can be found at http://www.irisfilms.org/longnight/index.htm
Use the following to cite this article:
Hauss, Charles (Chip). "Reconciliation." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/reconciliation/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Galtung, Johan. "After Violence: 3R, Reconstruction, Reconciliation, Resolution: Coping With Visible and Invisible Effects of War and Violence." ,
Available at: http://www.transcend.org/TRRECBAS.HTM.
This work offers a comprehensive examination of the effects of violence in warfare contexts. It maps out the visible and invivisible effects of direct violence on a variety of entitities including space, nature, humans, society, the world, time, and culture. The author provides an in-depth look at the issue of who is guilty for the perpetration of violence, using examples such as Auschwitz and Hiroshima. After the thorough examination of perpetration of and respsnibility for violence, the author discusses the recovery processes of reconstruction and reconciliation.
Lambourne, Wendy. "Post-Conflict Peacebuilding: Meeting Human Needs for Justice and Reconciliation." Peace, Conflict and Development, No. 4 , 2004
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper argues that both justice and reconciliation are fundamentally significant goals that need to be addressed in the design of successful post-conflict peacebuilding processes and mechanisms.
Reconciliation After Violent Conflict: A Handbook. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA).
Available at: Click here for more info.
This lengthy publication offers a rough guide for how to go about promoting reconciliation in the aftermath of violent conflict. Though the authors recognize that there is no prescription for this difficult task, this handbook is loaded with thoughtful suggestions. IDEA's mission involves the promotion of sustainable democracy around the world, and this handbook is aimed specifically at the tasks that must be accomplished in post-violence situations in order for democracy to blossom. IDEA considers addressing the legacy of violence and rebuilding shattered relationships as a primary task.
Negowetti, Nicole. "Reconciliation: Central Component of Conflict Transformation." , April 4, 2003
Available at: http://www.skynet.ie/~peacesoc/read/reconciliation.html.
This essay examines the concept of reconciliation as central to Jonh Paul Lederach's theory of conflict transformation. It asserts that contemporary intra-state conflicts require innovative approaches that consider the subjective experiences of both victims and perpetrators, for their transformation. The piece includes discussion of Lederach's distinction between conflict transformation and the concepts of conflict resolution and conflict management.
Assefa, Hizkias. "The Meaning of Reconciliation." ,
Available at: http://www.gppac.net/documents/pbp/part1/2_reconc.htm.
The author explains the process of reconciliation, by comparing it to other conflict handling mechanisms such as negotiation, mediation, adjudication, and arbitration.
Hartwell, Marcia Byrom. "The Role of Forgiveness in Reconstructing Society After Conflict." Journal of Humanitarian Assistance , 2000
Available at: http://www.jha.ac/articles/a048.htm.
This paper will addresses the topic of forgiveness by first defining it and secondly by focusing on its possibility and relevance in a post conflict situation. It will consider forgiveness within the framework of social reconciliation a collective attempt to rebuild a mutually beneficial and co-operative civil society by examining the concept of justice, by drawing upon psychological models of interpersonal forgiveness, and by considering other strategies for social healing. The traditional model of justice as fairness is questioned in its effectiveness to stop cycles of revenge and violence within a country. A more recent evolution of a "justice as reconciliation" paradigm developed by Mahmood Mamdani and derived from the South African experience, is explored as an approach that can embrace the process of forgiveness within the construction of reconciliation.
Offline (Print) Sources
Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, December 1997.
Marrying wisdom, insight, and passion, Lederach explains
why we need to move beyond "traditional" diplomacy, which often emphasizes top-level leaders and short-term objectives,
toward a holistic approach that stresses the multiplicity of
peacemakers, long-term perspectives, and the need to create an infrastructure that empowers resources within a society and maximizes contributions from outside. Click here for more info.
Lederach, John Paul. "Civil Society and Reconciliation." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, September 2001.
This chapter explores the role civil society plays in reconciliation in post-conflict societies. Lederach sees reconciliation as a dynamic, adaptive process of rebuilding interpersonal and community relationships. In order to understand the relationship between civil society and reconciliation, the author first outlines a comprehensive framework that takes peace as a process. In addition, he considers the types of social energy and emotions that are stirred up by reconciliation processes in deeply divided societies.
Kriesberg, Louis. "Coexistence and the Reconciliation of Communal Conflicts." In The Handbook of Interethnic Coexistence. Edited by Weiner, Eugene, ed. New York, NY: Continuum Publishing, 2000.
This chapter discusses the meanings of the terms coexistence and reconciliation and examines the obstacles to achieving these societal states in the wake of violent protracted conflicts. The article goes on to consider ways to foster equitable coexistence and reconciliation, looking at forms of reconciliation work and strategies for carrying out such work. Click here for more info.
Staub, Ervin and Laurie Anne Pearlman. "Healing, Reconciliation and Forgiving after Genocide and Other Collective Violence." In Forgiveness and Reconciliation: Religion, Public Policy, and Conflict Transformation. Edited by Petersen, Rodney L. and Raymond G. Helmick, eds. Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2001.
This chapter will explore the impact of collective violence on victims and, to some degree, on perpetrators as well. It will consider the role of healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation in building a better future in societies in which such violence had taken places. As a primary example, the chapter will focus on Rwanda, where the authors have been conducting a project on healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation.
Hampson, Fen Osler. Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, August 1996.
This work is based on the idea that peace settlements do not execute themselves. It is argued that the agreements that "work" are those that are continuously nuutured by sustained third-party leadership, mediation, problem solving, and peace building. The basic idea is that when key external actors remain angaged in the peace process over time, settlements have a better chance of succeeding.
Assefa, Hizkias. "Reconciliation." In Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Edited by Reychler, Luc and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001.
This brief chapter discusses various conflict handling mechanisms and their relative effectiveness, and distinguishes between conflict management, conflict resolution, and conflict prevention. Because conflict management strategies are not adequate to build a lasting peace, parties must move toward conflict resolution and reconciliation processes. The author discusses the elements of the reconciliation process and its central goals.
Bloomfield, David, Teresa Barnes and Luc Huyse. Reconciliation After Violent Conflict: A Handbook. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), 2003.
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). Reconciliation: Theory and Practice for Development Cooperation. Stockholm: Sida, 2003.
White, Anastasia. "Rewriting Narratives in the New South Africa." In Positive Approaches to Peacebuilding: A Resource for Innovators. Edited by Liebler, Claudia, ed. et al. Washington DC: Pact Publications, 2003.
"This chapter explores the notion of narrative in situations of deep-rooted conflict and, in particular, how the transformation of these narratives can open up space for reconciliation to occur. Using a lens of social constructionism and positive approaches to conflict resolution, the author reflects on her experience in South Africa in the post-apartheid period and how this led to the rewriting of narratives in the presence of a former adversary. From this experience, she draws lessons about the process of reconciliation and its attendant impact on existing narratives. The chapter concludes by arguing for the contribution of positive approaches toward humanizing relationships between antagonists and how this process of humanizing the Other creates a frame with which to understand reconciliation and notions of justice."
Fisher, Ronald J. "Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation." In Conflict Resolution: Dynamics, Process and Structure. Edited by Jeong, Ho-Won, ed. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999.
This chapter outlines the social-psychological premise and the author's vision of Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR), which is a method of problem-solving third party intervention. The ultimate goal of ICR is complete reconciliation of the conflicting parties, with all of their basic human needs and concerns addressed.
Kraybill, Ron. "The Cycle of Reconciliation." 14:3, 1995.
The author describes his theory of the reconciliation cycle. The theory is based on his experience in South Africa. He feels that people in South Africa have a mistaken image of the process of reconciliation, thinking of it as a process that erases the past. Kraybill's theory suggests that reconciliation is a long-lasting process that goes through several stages.
Click here for more info.
Long, William J. and Peter Brecke. War and Reconciliation: Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, January 17, 2003.
This work offers a systematic examination of the impact of reconciliation on restoring and maintaining peace following civil and international conflicts. The book presents eleven comparative case studies of civil war and eight of international conflict. Based on these cases, the authors offer an interesting social-psychological explanation for when and why reconciliation restores social order.
Chupp, Mark . "When Mediation is Not Enough." 10:3, 1991.
This article analyzes the value system that dominates the present field of mediation, the author concludes that the mediator's original goal of reconciliation has been lost. Throughout the years there has been a value shift in the mediation field which is reflected in the changing use of terminology from "reconciliation" to "conflict resolution" and to "conflict management". The model that he outlines in this article has a value of inner conflict and social structure transformation at the core and uses nonviolence as a technique of conflict regulation.
Click here for more info.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Spies, Chris. "A Safe Space: How Local Leaders Can Make Room for Reconciliation." Track Two, Vol. 6, No. 3&4 , 1998
Available at: http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/archive/two/6_34/p11_safe_space.html.
This article discusses the role local leaders in the Western Cape of South Africa can play in facilitating reconciliation in the aftermath of apartheid. Much of the conflict in the region revolves around subsistence and land rights. The article examines what people in this place think reconciliation is and what conditions must be created for reconciliation to be successful.
du Pont, Yannick. "Bosnia and Herzegovina: Trying to Keep the Country Together." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses progress on reconciliation, economic development, refugee return, and institutional reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The author argues that all aspects are moving forward very slowly and that the nation would likely still fall apart without the significant international political and military presence. The author also discusses prospects for the development of civil society.
United States Institute of Peace. Can Faith-Based NGOs Advance Interfaith Reconciliation?: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr103.html.
This report discusses various initiatives taken by faith-based NGOs to help facilitate reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovinia.
Zarembka, David. "Friends Peacemaking in Burundi." Friends Journal, June 2005 Issue , June 2005
Available at: http://www.friendsjournal.org/contents/2005/0605/feature.html.
This article describes a number of peacebuilding processes that are being used in Burundi to bring about reconciliation.
INCORE Guide to Internet Sources on Truth and Reconciliation. INCORE.
Available at: http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/services/cds/themes/truth.html.
This page includes links to information about truth and reconciliation. At present, most of the sources available on the internet relate almost exclusively to South Africa, Rwanda, and Bosnia-Herzgovinia. There are a smaller number of sources relating to the issue in Latin America. These will be expanded as and when the material becomes available on the internet
Negotiating Apartheid's End: South Africa's Turbulent Transition. 2005.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=190.
An interview with Alex Boraine, Susan Collin Marks, Vincent Diba, and Sean Tait. It took courage on all sides to bridge the chasm of suspicion and hostility engendered by generations of apartheid in South Africa. The world knows about Nelson Mandela but few realize that behind the scenes thousands of South Africans of all races worked at the community level to prevent simmering tensions from erupting into chaos. Join us for those untold stories of peacemaking.
Borer, Tristan Anne. "Reconciliation in South Africa: Defining Success." , March 2001
Available at: http://www.ciaonet.org/wps/bot01/.
This paper is concerned with the phenomenon of linking the term "success" and the term "reconciliation," in relation to assessing the work of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC). People are beginning to ask such questions as: "What good did the TRC do?," "What did it accomplish," or more generally, "was the TRC successful?"
Adelson, Anne. "Reconciliation: Truth and Consequences." Peace Magazine, Vol. 15, No. 1 , 1999
Available at: http://www.peacemagazine.org/archive/v15n1p06.htm.
This article discusses the work of reconciliation projects, focusing specifically on South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).
Will the Center Hold? Taming the Terror in Northern Ireland. 2004.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=174.
An interview with Mark Durkan, Mari Fitzduff, David Ford, and Jane Morrice. Northern Ireland: loveliness and strife at once but, you'll hear no gunfire there today. After generations of animosities, Protestants and Catholics reach for reconcilitation. In this program, we learn from them about taming terror and the fear of it. This is an Irish tale that is both cautionary and hopeful.
Offline (Print) Sources
"A Sense of Community." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
In Northern Ireland, "volunteers and participants in the Corrymeela Community's work are part of a unique experiment to create a common space within which all the various groups involved in one of the world's main trouble spots, can find an oasis of reconciliation."
"Armies for Peace in Nicaragua." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
"As Nicaragua's Peace Promoter Network, former soldiers from the Sandinista and Resistance armies are using their military skills to set examples of discipline, sacrifice and self-examination in the reconstruction of this central American nation."
Krog, Antjie and Charlayne Hunter-Gault. Country of My Skull: Guilt, Sorrow, and the Limits of Forgiveness in the New South Africa. New York: Times Books, March 1999.
This work is an account of the trials and tribulations of the hearings of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, as the nation attempted to reconcile in the wake of apartheid.
Humphrey, Michael. From Terror to Trauma: Commissioning Truth for the National Reconciliation.
This article discusses the use of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission as a way of shifting the national pain brought on by apartheid from one of terror to trauma. Humphrey argues that South Africa believed that the nation, like individuals, can more easily deal with trauma than terror. Through truth telling (testimony), the adjustment from terror to trauma can take place. Moreover, reconciliation is seen here as a partnership which re-establishes the basis for community life, not something conceded by the victims.
European Centre for Conflict Prevention. "Harmony gets a Chance in Israel." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
Describes a program in Israel that brings together teachers from both Israel and the Palestinian Authority.
Imagine Coexistence: Peace and Reconciliation Between Opposing Groups After Violent Mass Conflict. Jossey-Bass Publishers, April 2003.
The essays in this edited volume address the topic of peaceful coexistence after violent conflict, offering both theoretical analysis and real world examples. The book is divided into four sections: Concepts, Practice, Obstacles, and Approaches.
Johnston, Douglas and Cynthia Sampson. Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Discusses the role of religious actors in conflict prevention and resolution. This book is a result of a 7 year research project headed by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (www.csis.org) and features case studies from around the world.
Lederach, John Paul. "The Meeting Place." In Journey Towards Reconciliation. Edited by Lederach, John Paul, ed. Harald Press, 1998.
The author describes that the most important gifts that he recieved through his experiences was a new set of lenses. For fleeting moments I was able to see things around me in new ways. Through their eyes I saw beyond conflict resolution to reconciliation. Click here for more info.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Gacaca - Living Together Again in Rwanda? . Directed and/or Produced by: Aghion, Anne. First Run Icarus Films. 2002.
This film looks at the process of reconciliation taking place in Rwanda. Click here for more info.
Kim's Story: The Road from Vietnam. Directed and/or Produced by: Saywell, Shelley. First Run Icarus Films. 1996.
This film relates the story of Kim Phuc, who years after reaching world renown as the nine-year old girl who was running naked in the famous Vietnam War photograph, went to the US were she promoted an atmosphere of peace and forgiveness. Click here for more info.
No Silence In This Court . Directed and/or Produced by: Dubreuil, Elisabeth. First Run Icarus Films. 2001.
This film examines the way some tribal villages in the Indian state of Gujarat dealt with justice after India's independence. Click here for more info.
Seven Dreams of Peace . Directed and/or Produced by: Crous, Lluis. First Run Icarus Films. 1996.
This film takes a look at El Salvador's road to reconstruction that followed 12 years of civil war. Click here for more info.
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