Defining Extremism
Extremism is a complex phenomenon, although its complexity is often hard to see. Most simply, it can be defined as activities (beliefs, attitudes, feelings, actions, strategies) of a person or group far removed from the ordinary. In conflict settings it manifests as a severe form of conflict engagement. However, the labeling of activities, people, and groups as "extremist," and the defining of what is "ordinary" in any setting is always a subjective and political matter. Thus, we suggest that any discussion of extremism be mindful of the following:
"I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue." -- Barry M. Goldwater
"Extreme justice is often injustice." -- Jean Racine
"They violate our land and occupy it and steal the Muslim's possessions, and when faced by resistance they call it terrorism." -- Osama bin Laden
"God deliver you, dear reader, from a fixed idea it is they that make both supermen and madmen." --Friedrich Nietzsche
"The question is not whether we will be extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be. ...The nation and the world are in dire need of creative extremists." -- Martin Luther King, Jr.
"What is objectionable, what is dangerous about extremists is not that they are extreme, but that they are intolerant." -- Robert F. Kennedy
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- Typically, the same extremist act will be viewed by some as just and moral (such as pro-social "freedom fighting"), and by others as unjust and immoral (antisocial "terrorism") depending on the observer's values, politics, moral scope, and the nature of their relationship with the actor.
- In addition, one's sense of the moral or immoral nature of a given act of extremism (such as Nelson Mandela's use of guerilla war tactics against the South African Government) may change as conditions (leadership, world opinion, crises, historical accounts, etc.) change. Thus, the current and historical context of extremist acts shapes our view of them.
- Power differences also matter when defining extremism. When in conflict, the activities of members of low power groups tend to be viewed as more extreme than similar activities committed by members of groups advocating the status quo. In addition, extreme acts are more likely to be employed by marginalized people and groups who view more acceptable forms of conflict engagement as blocked for them or biased. However, dominant groups also commonly employ extreme activities (such as governmental sanctioning of violent paramilitary groups or the attack in Waco, Texas, by the FBI in the U.S.).
- Extremist acts often employ violent means, although extremist groups will differ in their preference for violent vs. non-violent tactics, in the level of violence they employ, and in the preferred targets of their violence (from infrastructure to military personnel to civilians to children). Again, low power groups are more likely to employ direct, episodic forms of violence (such as suicide bombings), whereas dominant groups tend to be associated with more structural or institutionalized forms (like the covert use of torture or the informal sanctioning of police brutality).
- Although extremist individuals and groups (such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad) are often viewed as cohesive and consistently evil, it is important to recognize that they may be conflicted or ambivalent psychologically as individuals, and/or contain a great deal of difference and conflict within their groups. For instance, individual members of Hamas may differ considerably in their willingness to negotiate their differences with the Palestinian Authority and, ultimately, with certain factions in Israel.
- Ultimately, the core problem that extremism presents in situations of protracted conflict is less the severity of the activities (although violence, trauma, and escalation are obvious concerns) but more so the closed, fixed, and intolerant nature of extremist attitudes, and their subsequent imperviousness to change.
Where Does Extremism Come From?
Jayne Docherty suggests in order to deal with extremism one must understand its underlying causes and the mechanisms that support it.
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There are a variety of schools of thought on the sources of extremism, which are given unequal weight in the literature. Here is a summary of the main perspectives:
- Extremism is grown. This means that adverse conditions (poverty, inadequate access to healthcare, nutrition, education, and employment), a denial of basic human needs (for security, dignity, group identity, and political participation), unending experiences of humiliation, and an ever-widening gap between what people believe they deserve and what they can attain leads to extreme acts. This is particularly so because socially accepted channels for getting needs met are experienced as blocked.
- Extremism is constructed. This takes two forms. One, political leaders, capitalizing on adverse conditions, reward extremism (such as offering monetary awards to families or emphasizing benefits to "martyrs" in the afterlife) and legitimize militantism in order to draw attention to their cause and gain power. Two, dominant groups, in an attempt to maintain power and resist demands for change, characterize the actions of marginalized groups as "extremist" and create a self-fulfilling prophecy which elicits increasingly extreme actions from these groups.
- Extremism is an emotional outlet for severe feelings. Persistent experiences of oppression, insecurity, humiliation, resentment, loss, and rage lead individuals and groups to adopt conflict engagement strategies which "fit" or feel consistent with these experiences. Thus, extremists will use violent, destructive strategies, not because they are instrumental to attaining other goals, but because they feel righteous, vengeful, and good. In fact, when extremism is morally sanctioned by one's in-group as an appropriate response to such feelings, members become more invested in extremist acts because they are empowering and feel "right."
- Extremism is a rational strategy in a game over power. Extremist actions are an effective strategy for gaining and maintaining power in an hierarchical environment where resources are scarce and competition for power is paramount for meetings one's needs. In other words, extremism works. It can call attention to one's cause, damage one's opponent, and unite one's in-group against a common enemy. This is a very common and popular perspective on the prevalence of extremism.
- Extremism emerges from apocalyptic, eschatological (end-of-life) ideologies. Extremist activities are often committed and valued because they are consistent with broader myths or systems of meaning. Some of these ideologies are focused on the cataclysmic demise of evil ruling powers (the outgroup) and the elevation and glorification of the righteous (ingroup), and thus emphasize the destruction of the other. Such belief systems include: good vs. evil framing; an other worldly orientation; a need for self-purification; divine sanctioning of horrendous violence; and the depiction of martyrdom as an act of self-purification and justice.[1] Youth are often socialized to buy into these ideologies by families, peers, communities, educational systems (such as madrassah), media, and politicians.
- Extremism is a pathological illness. This perspective views extremism as a disease and a way of life where people look to violence to provide a feeling of aliveness. Greun (2003) writes, "The lack of identity associated with extremists is the result of self-destructive self-hatred that leads to feelings of revenge toward life itself, and a compulsion to kill one's own humanness."[2] Thus extremism is seen as not a tactic, nor an ideology, but as a pathological illness, which feeds on the destruction of life.
This summary of perspectives on extremism raises many questions. First, are these in fact completely different phenomena, which cannot be meaningfully categorized under the single heading of "extremism?" Or are these all factors or components of a process, which can work in various combinations and result in an extremist act? Or perhaps they are aspects of a developmental process, which begins with certain conditions, and ideologies, are shaped by various political, emotional and tactical dynamics, and result in a closed, severe, and intolerant state which may become pathological. Ultimately, we must leave this for the reader to decide, hopefully in a manner that is informed by the specifics of the situation they face, and mindful of the relative values of the different perspectives outlined above.
The Consequences of Extremism
Roy Lewicki What's an "extremist?" Roy Lewicki discusses how language can make a conflict better or worse.
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Depending on one's perspective, extremism can have both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, it can draw the attention of one's opponent, the general public, or the international community to one side's hidden concerns. It can also send a message of desperation or of a deep and abiding commitment to a cause. As such, it may motivate a more powerful foe to consider negotiating, or third parties to intervene. And as the prevalence of such activities increase in a given conflict, they may become normative or glorified within one's group, thereby attracting others to the cause.
The negative consequences of extremism are varied. Violent atrocities committed by extremists (such as civilian bombings, kidnappings, and the spread of bio-toxins) enrage, traumatize, and alienate their targets, their opponents, and many potential allies to their cause (such as moderates on the other side and other regional and international members who morally oppose such acts). Extreme acts, even if committed by a small minority within a group, are often attributed to the entire group, and elicit an escalated response from the other side. At times, such responses are desired, as in the case of "spoilers" whose aim it is to stop peace processes which they believe to be exclusive or a betrayal of their cause. Ultimately, extremist ideologies, actions, and hostile inter-group interactions lead to a hardening of oppositional identities and deep ingroup commitments which contribute to the perpetuation of hostilities.
Approaches to Addressing Extremism
Morton Deutsch talks about when and how you negotiate with people you see as "the Devil."
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There are a variety of approaches used by leaders, diplomats, military experts, third parties, and others to address extremism, which fall on a continuum from total elimination of extremists to total engagement. The choice of such strategies is usually determined by the perspective taken on the primary sources of extremism (from individual pathologies to social, political and economic conditions) as well as the level of representation of the larger population's legitimate interests that the extremists are able to secure. It is a mistake to imagine extremists as isolated actors. Frequently, extremists are fringes that represent what the larger community is unable (or unwilling) to represent. The dichotomy is particularly relevant when violence is used. Violent extremists may be a fringe not supported by the population because of the use of violence, but are in tune with the larger group's desire to obtain the same political goals.
Some of the strategies aimed at addressing extremism include:
- Elimination. Simply the use of information, the law, and force to identify, locate, and apprehend (or destroy) extremists or key leaders of extremist groups. Sometimes this entails using legal maneuvers to tie up economic resources, thereby crippling the ability of such groups to organize and function. These tactics have been used by the Southern Poverty Law Center to undermine the operations of white supremacist groups in the United States.
Downside: Although elimination may work to remove key individuals and groups, it fails to address the underlying causes of extremism. These strategies are also often viewed as unjust by some, and can generate increased incidents of resistance and extremism from sympathizers. Also, there is a tendency to want to sacrifice certain civil liberties and human rights when working to directly eliminate extremism.
- Divide and conquer. When one group is able to infiltrate the opposing side's extremist groups, or establish relationships with ambivalent members of those groups, they can begin to create a wedge between members. Such schisms can fester and be the undoing of groups, particularly when conformity and cohesion is prized and betrayal is punished by extreme measures
Downside: Such strategies can backfire and lead to increased group unity, and can be "flipped"; used by the extremist groups to gain information and resources from their opponents. As above, this is a somewhat superficial or temporary approach to addressing extremism.
- Isolation. This strategy is often used by more moderate members of a community who disagree with the tactics of their more extreme members or who resent the "high-jacking" of their conflict processes by such members. It entails everything from a public distancing of the main group from extreme members and a condemnation of their actions to a more private withdrawal of support and backing from moderates.
Downside: Such strategies can intensify the intragroup conflict (between moderates and extremists) and destabilize the group. Such a state of vulnerability might also be seen as an opportunity to be seized by hardliners in the intergroup conflict, thus further weakening the moderate's situation.
- Intergroup cooperation against extremism. This is a variation on the above strategy, but entails cooperation between the parties involved in the intergroup conflict. Essentially, both groups agree to frame extremism and terrorism as a mutual problem to be solved jointly by the parties. This can be particularly effective on the heels of a peace agreement between the parties, where they attempt to anticipate and publicly label extremist responses to the agreement, thereby heading off the "spoiler" effects of destructive reactions.
Downside: Such strategies are built on the trust and assurances made of each of the opposing parties to isolate their own extremist groups, trust which tends to be fragile at such an early stage of peace processes. If it fails, it can jeopardize the entire peace agreement.
- Expanding the middle. In situations of protracted conflict, you often find moderates (pro-negotiation camp), hardliners (anti-negotiation camp), and extremists (anti-other camp) on each side. This strategy is an active attempt to establish the conditions which grow the more moderate (and even hard-line) segments, thus attracting the more moderate members of extremist groups toward a position of tolerance and away from a commitment to the destruction of the other.
Downside: The creation of "fake" interlocutors, almost puppet representatives with no political legitimacy beyond their cozy relationship with the external interveners. In certain conditions this strategy can also provoke the formation of "moderate" as a profession. Supported by ideologically close donors, these actors may lack the political capital to actually influence the process, raising expectations (especially among less well-read, well-connected actors). Another downside is to provoke an over-reaction by the extremists within the organization group, thus complicating the establishment of effective channels of communication and negotiation.
- Covert negotiation chains. Often, it is politically damaging for the leaders of one group to have any formal contact with members of extremist groups on either side. Such contact can alienate the opposing leadership as well as one's own constituents. Therefore, unofficial chains of communication are sometimes established where the leadership of one group has contact with extreme members of her/his own group, who in turn contact sympathizers in the opposing group, etc., until a communication chain is formed with key members of extreme groups. Thus, some progress may be made in covert negotiations, while leaders maintain some degree of political cover and deniability.
Downside: A politically risky strategy, which is dependent on the trustworthiness of several individuals from different segments of the conflict. Chains are also subject to unintended (and frequently well-intentioned) mistakes. Due to the highly sensitive nature of the issues at stake, members of chains may intentionally or unintentionally hide, modify, or censor relevant information. Chains are also not easy to maintain and sustain over time.
- Contradictory strategies. These are combined strategies which use many of the other approaches either simultaneously or at different times or phases of a peace process in an attempt to eliminate more serious threats to security while expanding the middle and addressing the conditions which perpetuate extremism.
Downside: Often, the use of elimination strategies, even when accompanied by more conciliatory strategies, poisons the relationship and increases suspicion and escalation.
- Intragroup work within polarized groups in intergroup conflicts. Rarely utilized, this approach would encourage and facilitate intragroup dialogue and problem-solving in an attempt to actively address the concerns of more extreme members and reduce the incidence of splinter-groups. An "organic" example of this strategy could be found in any highly organized structure such as the Italian Communist Party fighting the Fascist regime. Distinctions between "hawks" and "doves" are a permanent feature even in extremist groups.
Downside: It is extremely difficult to establish the internal relations of open communication and trust that make this strategy viable. It should be supported -- if worthwhile -- from the outside. Also, participation of such a degree of "intimacy" would transform the intervener to an active political actor. Many professionals resist that orientation mightily.
- Direct, overt engagement. The active and direct attempt to include key members of extremist groups in formal peace processes, especially through intelligence contacts. Extremist groups are in fact -- in many areas of the world -- heavily infiltrated and at time direct, confidential contacts can be established.
Downside: Significant security concerns. Also, you run the likely risk of spoiler (from all sides) acts, which can shut down the entire process.
- Peace building. This approach, which is aimed at addressing the underlying conditions, which foster extremism, requires activities at two levels. At the macrosocial-level it requires work toward:
At the micro-social level it requires:
- a reduction of stereotypes and enemy images;
- the promotion of empathy, caring, and intercultural understanding;
- and the provision of economic and social support for young people.[3]
Downside: An ambitious, but daunting agenda, frequently rejected by the extremists as too longterm, too optimistic, and unrealistic. The slow pace of peacebuilding processes may also alienate sectors of communities that, while not extremist per se, advocate a more adversarial pro-active approach.
[1] Derived from Wessells, Michael (2002). "Terrorism, apocalyptic ideology, and young martyrs: Why peacebuilding matters." Paper presented at the American Psychological Association Conference in Chicago, August 2002.
[2] Gruen, Arno (2003). "An unrecognized pathology: The mask of humaneness." Journal of Psychohistory. Vol 30(3) Win 2003, 266-272. Association for Psychohistory, U.S.
[3] Derived from Wessells, Michael (2002). "Terrorism, apocalyptic ideology, and young martyrs: Why peacebuilding matters." Paper presented at the American Psychological Association Conference in Chicago, August 2002.
Use the following to cite this article:
Bartoli, Andrea and Peter T. Coleman. "Dealing with Extremists." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/dealing_extremists/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Bias Crime, Hatred, Extremism. The Safe Schools Coalition.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This page offers information on extremism and hate groups, and how to combat their presence in schools.
Offline (Print) Sources
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This article espouses a highly academic theory regarding how leaders are identified and come into leadership roles in social groups. Basically, the theory argues that the most prototypical member of a group, the individual that most people in the group are attracted to (charismatic), will be imbued with the the power to influence the group. The piece includes empirical support for the theory and a discussion of its implications, including intergroup dimensions, uncertainty reduction and extremism, power, and pitfalls of prototype-based leadership.
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Intractable intergroup conflicts require the formation of a conflictive ethos that enables a society to adapt to the conflict situation, survive the stressful period, and struggle successfully with the adversary. The formal termination of such a conflict begins with the elimination of the perceived incompatibility between the opposing parties through negotiation by their representatives?that is, a conflict resolution process. But this is only part of the long-term reconciliation process, which requires the formation of peaceful relations based on mutual trust and acceptance, cooperation, and consideration of mutual needs. The psychological aspect of reconciliation requires a change in the conflictive ethos, especially with respect to societal beliefs about group goals, about the adversary group, about the ingroup, about intergroup relations, and about the nature of peace. In essence, psychological reconciliation requires the formation of an ethos of peace, but this is extremely difficult in cases of intractable conflict. Political psychologists can and should work to improve the state of knowledge about reconciliation, which until now has received much less attention than conflict resolution.
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Abstract: This paper will examine the concepts of fundamentalism and paranoia to contribute understanding to how extremist positions have developed. Fundamentalism is a rigid, dogmatic, and skewed view that dismisses other competing and conflicting viewpoints. Extreme feelings can only lead to extremist behavior. Fears in our inner selves will only fuel the fires of paranoia, encourage fundamentalist behavior, and lead to group conflicts. We will examine this on micro (group) and macro (society) levels.
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Stein discusses the need for group identity and the tendency to distinguish between "insiders" and "outsiders". Stereotyped enemy images form in this context and tend to perpetuate and intensify conflict. Has extensive discussion of Egypt's Anwar Sadat and the Soviet Union's Mikhail Gorbachev to illustrate the role of psychological factors. Similar chapter appears in Turbulent Peace. Click here for more info.
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Abstract: Right-wing extremist attitudes can seem rational when they are viewed from the near-term, group-linked interests of individuals in their own well-being, ascendency, or domination. We test an elaboration of a rational choice theory of right-wing extremism that focuses on hierarchic and self-interested imperatives in market-driven societies. Our elaboration of this theory identifies a theoretical and empirical unification of four social psychological dimensions??involving competitive processes of social comparison, individualism, materialist preoccupations with success, and the acceptance of social inequality. These dimensions coalesce into a higher order, latent subterranean construct we call hierarchic self-interest. This latent construct is strongly related to right-wing extremism among samples of East and West German youth. Male adolescents experiencing the rapid transition to a market economy in an economically and socially depressed East Germany may be especially susceptible to extremist appeals to hierarchic self-interests. Male and East German youth express stronger hierarchic self-interests than female and West German youth, and these differences mediate the greater tendencies of male and East German youth to express hostility toward immigrants and foreigners, who are often a step below and in competition with them on the socioeconomic ladder of success. Hierarchic self-interest is a persistent and dangerous source of support for right-wing extremism.
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"How many ways are there to approach life? Who is trying to get you to buy into their view of the world? And what do they have to gain by convincing you they are "right?" In his book Naked Guide To Life And Death authour David Jon Peckinpaugh seeks to unmask the attempts to convince us that things are a certain way, according to how the so-called "experts" see the world, often resulting in a far more narrow and limited perspective than one might initially suppose. His main thesis is that expertise of all kinds can result in our being seduced into knowing something as being so, when it, in fact, is not nearly so evident as the experts tend to make it seem. In throwing off the veil of religion and science, psychology and philosophy, consumerism and commercialism, Mr. Peckinpaugh performs an endearing service on behalf of us all, humanity. Suggesting that beyond the often contracted and tight spaces of expertise, hence, extremism, there are wide open spaces still inviting to those who dare to entertain the wisdom of not-knowing." - Amazon.com
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With the end of the Cold War and reunification of Germany, both the renewal of Eastern Europe and the Gulf War tuned or turned into the at once technological and group-psychological reception of phantasms, phantoms, doubles still coming home from the Second World War.
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"The book examines the evolving nature of national and international security in the post-Cold War era, focusing on non-military threat potentials and how these may best countered. Six specific issues are discussed: terrorism, the heroin and cocaine trade, privacy, environmental degradation, the spread of disease and uncontrolled migration. The book concludes that greater national coordination, inter-agency cooperation and international collaboration is needed if these problems are going to be effectively dealt with." -Amazon
Gurr, Ted Robert. Peoples Versus States: Minorities at Risk in the New Century. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, July 1, 2000.
Following the book Minorities at Risk, Peoples Versus States addresses the risk that ethnic and nationalist conflict will place on minorities in the twenty-first century.
White, Jonathan R. "Political Eschatology: A Theology of Antigovernment Extremism." American Behavioral Scientist 44:6, February 2001.
Abstract: This article explores apocalyptic theology in four American extremist religions: Christian Identity; Nordic Christianity and Odinism; violent, "freewheeling" fundamentalism; and Creatorism. It is argued that violent eschatology interacts with criminology in the sense that politicized religions produce criminal behavior and, at times, terrorism. A brief history of the relationship between religion and racist violence is presented as well as an analysis of the social factors that produce political eschatology. The article concludes with an examination of religious terrorism and technological weapons. Mass destruction is the greatest threat of religiously motivated terrorism.
Breton, Albert and Gianluigi Galeotti, eds. Political Extremism and Rationality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, January 7, 2002.
"The distinguishing feature of this collection by well-known economists and political scientists from North America, Europe, and Australia is to propose a variety of explanations that all insist on the rationality of extremism. The authors identify four core issues in the study of extremism: the nature (definition) of extremism and its origins in both democratic and authoritarian settings, the capacity of democratic political systems to accommodate extremist positions, the strategies (civil disobedience, assassination, lynching) chosen by extremist groups, and the circumstances under which extremism becomes a threat to democracy." - Amazon.com
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Abstract: It is pointed out that the recent study by Grossarth-Maticek, Eysenck and Vetter (Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 547?558, 1989) used a measure of prejudice that was couched in very extreme language and that only about 5% of the respondents agreed with any given item. This suggests the possibility that the observed relationship between ethnocentrism and personality would show up as a negligible correlation if results were presented in correlational form. Other problems with the prejudice scale are also pointed out. A parsimonious explanation is suggested for the finding that prejudice was reduced by a programme of psychological training originally designed to ward off heart disease.
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This article discusses the important issue of spoilers, or extreme parties that purposely do whatever they can to disrupt peacemaking processes for fear of losing power. This study begins to develop a typological theory of spoiler management. The goal is to identify strategies that spoilers may potentially use. In addition, the research intends to outline strategies that policymakers and negotiators can use to diagnose the type of spoiler and effectively deal with them in order to keep peace processes on track.
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Blaker, Kimberly, ed. The Fundamentals of Extremism. New Boston Books, Inc., 2003.
"The politics, educational policies, and social values perpetuated by Christian fundamentalists are exposed in this critical perspective on the religious right's role in American society. Statistics and studies of the movement are offered that provide insight into the causes and characteristics of fundamentalism and its effects on minority groups including women, children, African Americans, gays, and lesbians. Essays from a variety of authors consider the path to theocracy, the effect of the theology of inerrancy on politics, and the state of fundamentalism in the United States after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks." -Amazon
Blaker, Kimberly, ed. The Fundamentals of Extremism. New Boston Books, Inc., 2003.
"The politics, educational policies, and social values perpetuated by Christian fundamentalists are exposed in this critical perspective on the religious right's role in American society. Statistics and studies of the movement are offered that provide insight into the causes and characteristics of fundamentalism and its effects on minority groups including women, children, African Americans, gays, and lesbians. Essays from a variety of authors consider the path to theocracy, the effect of the theology of inerrancy on politics, and the state of fundamentalism in the United States after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks." -Amazon
Bohleber, Werner. "The Presence of the Past: Xenophobia and Rightwing Extremism in the Federal Republic of Germany: Psychoanalytic Reflections." American Imago 52:3, 1995.
"Xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and nationalism are complex, multifariously determined phenomena, that can only be explained within the framework of interdisciplinary cooperation. Although these phenomena are socially determined and get their dynamics mainly from social processes, a psychoanalytical description is needed to understand the attraction which they have for the individual and the extraordinary strong affects that are connected to them. Anti-Semitism and xenophobia are a "social disease" that has deep-seated roots in the unconscious. Although important psychoanalytic studies have already been done on anti-Semitism, not enough research on these phenomena has been undertaken as yet. In particular, the psychological connection between xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and modern nationalism has not yet been studied sufficiently. However, the present situation in Germany makes the analysis of such relationships essential, so that the reasons for this widespread xenophobic mentality can be found."
Durrheim, Kevin. "The Relationship Between Tolerance of Ambiguity and Attitudinal Conservatism: A Multidimensional Analysis." European Journal of Social Psychology 28:5, September 1998.
Abstract: The predictions of four social psychological theories of the relationship between cognitive style and conservatism - the theory of the authoritarian personality, extremism theory, context theory, and value pluralism theory - are examined in two empirical studies. Unlike previous research, these studies employ a measure of ambiguity tolerance, the Attitudinal Ambiguity Tolerance scale, which can assess cross-content variability in cognitive style. The results of the two studies conflict with the expectations of all four theories. In particular, only certain aspects of conservatism were related to ambiguity tolerance toward a particular content domain; and massive variability was evident in the shape of the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and conservatism across different content domains of ambiguity tolerance. The results are discussed in terms of value conflict which arises from endorsing conservative beliefs in a liberal institutional context.
Durrheim, Kevin. "Theoretical Conundrum: The Politics and Science of Theorizing Authoritarian Cognition." Political Psychology 18:3, September 1997.
Abstract: The historical development of the four main theories which have attempted to explain the relationship between cognitive style and ideological content -- i.e., authoritarianism, extremism theory, context theory, and value pluralism theory -- is analyzed from a rhetorical perspective. The discussion focuses on the manner in which the tensions between theoretical universalism and political critique have been "resolved" by theorists working in different historico-political contexts. While both these scientific and political values have been of central concern in theorizing the link between cognitive style and content, they are deeply incompatible because it is not possible to establish a fixed relationship between a personality dimension and the changing beliefs associated with different ideologies across time and place. This has prompted theorists aiming for universalistic accounts to define ideological orientation in terms of psychological processes rather than content, which, in turn, has compromised the critical potential of their theory. The paper concludes that the historical development of the literature may be understood in terms of dilemmatic counter-themes which, under different political circumstances, have been resolved in novel ways.
Kim, Young Yun. Unum and Pluribus: Ideological Underpinnings of Interethnic Communication in the United States.
This paper examines everyday public discourse on issues of interethnic relations to demonstrate how the ideals of the founding ideology, "classical liberalism", play out in contemporary American society. A qualitative-interpretive method is employed to examine a wide range of messages voiced in recent years by politicians, community and civic leaders, intellectuals, and ordinary citizens.
Frindte, Wolfgang, Friedrich Funke and Sven Walzdus. Xenophobia and Right-Wing Extremism in Germany Youth Groups -- Some Evidence Against Unidimensional Misinterpretations.
Abstract: The antecedents of violent and xenophobian orientations among young people have been extensively studied after the German reunification, producing various complementary or contradictory theoretical approaches. The present study presents statistical analyses of survey data collected from 1,177 adolescents in six German towns. These serve as the base for a bidimensional structural analysis of extreme right-wing orientation. The overlap between extreme right-wing social orientation and variables, such as gender, educational level or affinity to various youth cultures is analyzed and discussed. It is shown that there is a great danger of misinterpretation if one tries to generalize isolated results concerning xenophobian and violence-related orientations among German youths.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Albanians in the Balkans. United States Institute of Peace.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr77.html.
This article looks at the complex issues associated with conflict in the Balkan region regarding the status of Albanian populations. It focuses on extremists, on all sides of the issue, and gives suggestions how to they might be dealt with.
"Responding to Extremist Speech: 20 Frequently Asked Questions." , 1900
Available at: http://www.awcnet.org/documents/tools_respondextremist.pdf.
This article answers twenty frequently asked questions about how the government may legally respond when extremists choose to demonstrate in public.
Benjamin, Robert D. "Terry Waite: A Study in Authenticity." , November 2002
Available at: http://www.mediate.com/articles/benjamin7.cfm.
This article features Terry Waite, a hostage negotiator of international fame who knows both sides; after gaining the release of hostages in Libya, he himself was held hostage by a militant group in the Middle East for five years. The personal resolve and bearing that saw him through both situations offer important lessons worthy of note by all negotiators.
Offline (Print) Sources
McCuen, Gary E. "Abortion Violence and Extremism." In Ideas in Conflict Series.
Michael, George. Confronting Right Wing Extremism and Terrorism in the USA. Routledge, October 1, 2003.
"This book examines the response to right-wing extremism in the US from both the government and non-governmental organizations and provides a detailed portrait of contemporary extreme right in the US." - Amazon.com
Karstedt, Susanne. "Early Nazis 1923-1933 -- Neo-Nazis 1980-1995: A Comparison of the Life Histories of Two Generations of German Right-Wing Extremists." In Historical and Geographical Influences on Psychopathology.
Sargent, Lyman Tower. Extremism in America. New York: New York University Press, August 1, 1995.
This book covers a wide range of extremists groups that have existed throughout U.S. history. It talks about everything from the Communist Party of America to the Klans of America, discussing various groups in between, on the left and on the right.
Qaradilai wil, Yui suf. Islamic Awakening Between Rejection and Extremism. Qazi Publishers, 1990.
Merkens, Hans et al. "Jugendlicher Rechtsextremismus: Zur Bedeutung von Schulerfolg und Elterlicher Kontrolle [Right-Wing Extremism Among Adolescents: The Impact of Academic Success and Parental Control]." Zeitschrift fur Padagogische Psychologie 12:4, December 1998.
Rothschild, Jon and Gilles Kepel. Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and Pharaoh.
George, John and Laird M. Wilcox. Nazis, Communists, Klansmen, and Others on the Fringe: Political Extremism in America. Prometheus Books, 1992.
This work examines historical extremist groups in the US. It offers profiles of the organizations, and seeks to find the motives of those affiliated with them in order to better understand what causes extremism and what might be done to prevent it.
Luwayhiq, Abd Al-Rahman Ibn Mualla, Abdul Rahmaan Ibn Mualaa Al-Luwaihiq Al-Mutairi and Jamaal Al-Din M. Zarabozo. Religious Extremism in the Lives of Contemporary Muslims. Al-Basheer Publications & Translations:
Boehnke, Klaus, John Hagan and Hans Merkens. "Right-Wing Extremism among German Adolescents: Risk Factors and Protective Factors." Applied Psychology 47:1, January 1998.
Sword of Islam : Muslim Extremism from the Arab Conquests to the Attack on America. Prometheus Books, July 2002.
Gardner, James. The Age of Extremism: The Enemies of Compromise in American Politics, Culture, and Race Relations. Birch Lane Press, April 1997.
This book looks at contemporary US attitudes of extremism, from film violence to separatist movements. It questions the origin of the extremist attitude, and asks, it is here to stay, or can it be transformed?
Marks, Kathy. "The Faces of Right Wing Extremism." Braden Books, February 1, 1996.
"In this revealingly detailed catalogue of right-wing groups, Marks, a social worker who has been an active investigator of child-abuse cases, traces the rise of the radical right over the past 25 years. She points out that not all right-wing groups are violent, but some, like the John Birch Society, are 'often a breeding ground and starting point for those who then move on to more radical action.' Marks scrutinizes the Klan network, Neo-Nazi units, skinheads, Christian Identity, the militia movement, White American Homeland and others. More than older extremist organizations, new groups are more likely to align with one another, says Marks, and thereby pose greater threats to society." - Amazon.com
Merkl, Peter and Leonard Weinberg. "The Revival of Right Wing Extremism in the 90s." In Cass Series on Political Violence. Edited by Bjorgo, Tore, ed.
Hewitt, Christopher. Understanding Terrorism in American (Extremism and Democracy). London: Routledge, 2002.
"This comprehensive and accessible work surveys the characteristics and causes of terrorism and governmental responses to it. It also examines the organizational structure of terrorist networks, how they are financed, and their ideological agendas. Groups covered include: Islamic fundamentalists, white and black racists, black nationalists, revolutionary communists, neo-nazis, militant Jewish groups, anti-abortionists and emigre groups. Understanding Terrorism in American provides a highly readable account for interested readers wishing to know more about a topic which has recently become tragically relevant in world affairs." - Amazon.com
Rosseel, Eric. "Varieties of Political Radicalism: An Inquiry into Social and Political Attitudes of Flemish-Speaking Brussels Students." Politics and the Individual 3:2, 1993.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Resurgence: The Movement for Equality vs. the Ku Klux Klan. Directed and/or Produced by: Yates, Pamela, Tom Sigel and Peter Kinoy. First Run Icarus Films. 1981.
This film explains how civil rights advocates dealt with extreme hate groups who were using threats and coercion in their attempt to stop the advancement of civil justice and equality in the United States. Click here for more info.
The Bombing . Directed and/or Produced by: Bitton, Simone. First Run Icarus Films. 1999.
In its quest to understand and address the issue of suicide bombings, this film through the use of interviews with both the suicide bombers' families and the victims' families, hunts for the motivates that propel individuals to engage in this type of violence. Click here for more info.
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Teaching Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Education to Combat Extremism and Hate Crimes. Anti-Defamation League.
Available at: http://www.adl.org/education/default_combat_hc.asp.
This page lists programs available through the Anti-Defamation League that work to combat extremism. Programs are available for educators, youth leaders, and others.
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