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Polarization: Additional Resources
These references supplement the Knowledge Base Essay, Polarization.
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Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Adan, Mohamud, Ruto Pkalya and Isabella Masinde. "Conflict in Northern Kenya: A Focus on the Internally Displaced Conflict Victims in Northern Kenya." Intermediate Technology Development Group, 2003. Available at: Primary Link [Backup Link] This case study describes the nature of violent conflicts in the Northern districts of Kenya. It describes the causes and consequences attached to the conflicts, the actors involved and preventative measures that can be used to transform and prevent these violent episodes. Galtung, Johan. "Conflict, War and Peace: A Bird's Eye View." , Available at: http://www.transcend.org/topbasic.htm [Backup Link] Johan Galtung discusses the many variations and sub-types of violence and war and presents conflict resolution approaches that offer the potential for avoiding or mitigating violence and war. He also addresses the issue of polarization and explains how conflicts escalate. Herzig, Margaret. "Moving From Polarized Polemic to Constructive Conversation." Interact: The Journal of Public Participation (July, 2001). , 2001 Available at: Primary Link [Backup Link] This article begins by briefly describing some common patterns of polarization regarding controversial public issues. Next, the author describes the general approach and also the specific steps that the Public Conversations Project has developed to reverse polarization patterns through dialogue. Lastly, two cases are referenced to show how private dialogue can enhance public participation in resolving public policy issues. Polarity Management Associates. Available at: http://www.polaritymanagement.com/ [Backup Link] Polarity Management offers training and resources that can help organizations and businesses turn polarized situations into creative synergy. Polarization. Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/problem/polariz.htm [Backup Link] In an effort to build their power base, parties often seek alliances with other interest groups, which agree to help each other as they pursue their separate objectives. In order to remain competitive, interest groups tend to form as many alliances as possible. Over time, this process tends to divide communities into two large and opposing alliances--a process called "polarization." Esteban, Joan. Polarization and Conflict: A Research Program. Polarization and Conflict. Available at: http://www.polarizationandconflict.org [Backup Link] The author suggests that many countries display a distribution of income that is becoming increasingly polarized. There are growing signs of social clustering and polarization, conditions that seem to favor the rise of social unrest. The aim of this project is to promote and coordinate research about the links between polarization and conflict.
Offline (Print) Sources
Olczak, Paul V. and Dean G. Pruitt. "Beyond Hope: Approaches to Resolving Seemingly Intractable Conflict." Conflict, Cooperation and Justice: Essays Inspired by the Work of Morton Deutsch , May 1995. The authors see polarization as the second of four stages of conflict escalation. During the first stage the conflict is not particularly escalated. Perceptions of the opponent are relatively accurate (not stereotyped) and the parties still have a good relationship. However, conflicts often escalate to a second stage, which they call polarization. Enemy images are formed, even to the point where the enemy is considered less than human, and hence not worthy of respect or what might have previously been considered "fair" treatment. The third stage is segregation, which is actually a second level of polarization, characterized by competition and hostility. The last stage is destruction, in which parties form goals to destroy the other. Kriesberg, Louis. Constructive Conflicts: From Escalation to Resolution, 2nd Edition. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, November 2002. In chapter six, Kriesberg discusses the polarization of relations that typically accompanies conflict escalation. As their interaction becomes more contentious, the adversaries tend to cut off communication and become increasingly isolated from each other. They are less constrained by crosscutting ties and feel more justified in taking severe action. Negative stereotypes and dehumanization often result from this process of polarization. Prentice, Deborah A. and Dale T. Miller, eds. Cultural Divides: Understanding and Overcoming Group Conflict. Russell Sage Foundation, June 1, 1999. This work examines America's increasingly diverse society and attempts to answer questions regarding the limits of pluralism in the United States. The work investigates questions surrounding Americans' capacity for tolerance and to live in harmony despite a growing level of cultural difference between groups. This book features research about the origins and nature of group conflict and examines the effects of culture on social life from a social-psychological perspective. A key question is whether social polarization along racial and ethnic lines is inevitable. Primary Link [Backup Link] Reynal-Querol, M. "Ethnicity, Political Systems, and Civil Wars." Journal of Conflict Resolution 46:1, February 1, 2002. This journal article discusses the effect of ethnic division on civil war and the role of political systems in preventing these conflicts. It stresses the importance of religious polarization to explain the incidence of ethnic civil war. Stein, Janice Gross. "Image, Identity and Conflict Resolution." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996. In an effort to establish or defend group identity, groups identify their distinctive attributes as virtues and regard the attributes of the opposing side as vices. This need for group identity often polarizes groups with conflicting interests and goals, and gives rise to damaging stereotypes and enemy images. Primary Link [Backup Link] Pruitt, Dean G., Jeffrey Z. Rubin and Sung Hee Kim. Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement, 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw Hill College Division, January 1, 1994. In chapters six and seven, the authors discuss community polarization and argue that it acts as both a cause and effect of conflict escalation. When two groups enter into heavy conflict, it will be difficult for other community members to remain neutral. They will be forced to take sides, and thus intensify the conflict. Group polarization is also linked to psychological changes that lead parties' tactics to become more severe. Primary Link
Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Gon?alves, Fernando. "Ideological Shifts, Economic Imperatives: Mozambican Peace Process & South African States." Accord, Vol. 3 , 1998 Available at: Primary Link [Backup Link] Scroll down the page and click on "Ideological Shifts, Economic Imperatives: Mozambican Peace Process & South African States." This article discusses how the political polarization of South African States in the 1970's and 80's delayed the negotiation of a settlement for Mozambique's war, with the subsequent region-wide shift in favor of more liberal politics in the late 1980's and 1990's leading to resolution. Much of the article focuses on regional economic relations and instability. The transition to majority rule in South Africa is identified as the solidifying change in the region that allowed for the resolution of the Mozambican conflict. Stallaerts, Robert. "Montenegro: Splitting the Federation-a Split in Society?." , 2002 Available at: Primary Link [Backup Link] This article describes the ongoing tensions between Serbia and Montenegro, which were spawned by bad relations between the leaders of the nations. Ahmar, Moonis. "Pakistan: The Sindhi-Mohajir Conflict." , 2002 Available at: Primary Link [Backup Link] This article outlines the dynamics of ethic polarization in the Sindh region of Pakistan, which has been populated by people of varying ethnic and religious backgrounds over time.
Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
One Island, Two Irelands . Directed and/or Produced by: Meurice, Jean-Michel. First Run Icarus Films. 1998. This film uses archival materials dating from 1916, to tell the history of Ireland's civil war. Primary Link [Backup Link] Philippines: The Price of Power. Directed and/or Produced by: Chester, Jeffrey and Charles Drucker. First Run Icarus Films. 1986. This film focuses on the Igorots, indigenous Filipino farmers, who moved from nonviolent to violent action in their pursuit to stop development activities that threatened their way of life. Primary Link [Backup Link] Shadow Play. Directed and/or Produced by: Hilton, Chris. First Run Icarus Films. 2002. This film speculates how polarization between American anti-communist and Russian communist forces influenced the overthrow of Indonesian's President Sukarno. Primary Link [Backup Link] |
