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These references supplement the Knowledge Base Essay, What Are Intractable Conflicts?

Conflict Research Consortium Staff. "Intractable Conflicts and their Transformations--Book Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: Link

This summary of Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformations, edited by Louis Kriesberg, Terrell Northrup and Stuart Thorson, gives a good overview of the book. The book brings together essays from a number of authors who explore intractability through diverse theoretical frameworks and case histories.

Jameson, Jessica K. "The Escalation and De-escalation of Intractable Conflict." Communicating War and Terror ,
Available at: Primary Link  [Backup Link]

This article discusses one theory of the stages of conflict escalation that lead to intractability, as well three levels of de-escalation that can lead to resolution.


Putnam, Linda L. "Intractability: Definitions, Dimensions, and Distinctions." In Making Sense of Intractable Environmental Conflicts: Frames and Cases. Edited by Gray, Barbara, Michael Elliott and Roy J. Lewicki, eds. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2003.
This chapter offers a thorough discussion of the concept of intractability, attempting to flech out the various definitions and interpretations of the term. The author highlights the variations as well as the commonalities among intractable conflicts and proposes a continuum on which to understand the movement and patterns of intractable conflicts.

Coleman, Peter T. "Intractable Conflict." In The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. Edited by Deutsch, Morton and Peter T. Coleman, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2000.
This chapter discusses the characteristics, causes, and consequences of intractable conflict as well as implications for intervening in such situations.

Kriesberg, Louis, Terrell A. Northrup and Stuart J. Thorson, eds. Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation. New York: Syracuse University Press, October 1989.
Intractable Conflicts brings together essays from a number of authors who explore intractability through diverse theoretical frameworks and case histories. These essays were first presented at a conference sponsored by Syracuse University's Program on the Analysis and Resolution of Conflicts. Primary Link

Northrup, Terrell A., Stuart J. Thorson and Louis Kriesberg, eds. Intractable Conflicts and their Transformations. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1989.
The editors bring together essays from a number of authors who explore intractability through diverse theoretical frameworks and case histories. In all of these essays, intractable conflicts are seen as resisting resolution, but are not considered "unresolvable." Primary Link

Azar, Edward E. and Rick Ayre. "Protracted Social Conflict: An Analytical Framework." In The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases. Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Press, April 1990. Pages: 5-17.
This chapter offers a framework for analyzing difficult protracted, or "intractable," conflicts. It describes what sorts of internal and external factors should be given attention in trying to determine the causes of the conflict and its enduring nature.

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Walter, Barbara. Reputation and War: Explaining the Intractability of Territorial Conflict. University of California-San Diego: Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies.
Available at: http://www.ciaonet.org/wps/wab04/wab04.pdf  [Backup Link]
This paper examines the factors that play into whether governments will negotiate territorial conflicts that are grounded in self-determination movements, or not. The author argues that governments of multi-ethnic states are far less likely to negotiate than are governments that preside over more homogeneous populations.


Kriesberg, Louis. "Transforming Conflicts in the Middle East and Central Europe ." In Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation. Edited by Northrup, Terrell A., Stuart J. Thorson and Louis Kriesberg, eds. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1989.
The author describes efforts directed at prevention of two case studies' intractability as well as those that encouraged their transformation toward becoming more negotiable. According to Kriesberg, for transformation to happen, a strategy should be developed that incorporates "the appropriate parties, issues, and combination of inducements for the desired movement at a particular time". Primary Link

Cavanaugh, Kathleen A. "Understanding Protracted Social Conflict: A Basic Needs Approach." In Reconcilable Differences: Turning Points in Ethnopolitical Conflict. Edited by Irvin, Cynthia L. and Sean Byrne, eds. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, Inc., 2000.
According to a needs-based approach to conflict analysis and resolution, conflict is rooted in the denial of basic human needs such as identity-recognition and security. The author applies such an approach to the Northern Ireland case and suggests that unmet needs have contributed to the sociopolitical instability of the region since 1968.

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