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In the context of conflict resolution, the definition of "security" depends on one's perspective. At the simplest level, security may be defined as "the quality or state of being secure," "freedom from danger," or "freedom from fear or anxiety." Of the many other levels on which one can analyze security, the most relevant here are individual, group, regional, national, and global. Our task is then relatively simple; we consider how security is defined at these different levels. What emerges is a framework upon which security agreements are constructed and implemented.
Individual Security
Carolyn Stephenson talks about alternative definitions of pursuing "security."
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On the individual level, security is most often understood as safety. This safety includes freedom from harm, whether physical or psychological. Threats to an individual's security can produce the fear or anxiety mentioned above. The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that all people are entitled to "security of person." This declaration reinforces the concept of freedom from physical and psychological harm. Yet, what measures will be taken to protect an individual from harm? The most common forms of protection are legal structures that protect individuals from threats to their security. These include, but are not limited to, laws against murder, sex crimes, bodily harm, theft, and psychological harm such as coercion. The state assumes responsibility for constructing and implementing these legal regulations. In addition, security can be related to one's ability to attain the fundamental physical needs of a home, food, and socio-economic needs such as a job. The concept of individual security can therefore be linked to an individual's perception of her or his standard of living. The individual may thus equate security with a high standard of living.
Group Security
Angela Khaminwa quotes Susan Collin Marx, "If we don't coexist, we all co-destruct."
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The definition of security at the group level shares many similarities with the definition of individual security; as the individual expects to have security of person, so does the group. But at the group level, an important aspect of security is freedom from discrimination. While an individual certainly can be mistreated for her or his affiliation with a religious, national, or ethnic group, this mistreatment is more obvious and perhaps more successfully prevented when an entire group is subject to the same mistreatment. We can define the group, i.e., why that group IS a group. Is it due to the similar nationality of its members? Are they a group because they share similar religious beliefs? Whatever the reason, group security may be interpreted as safety from threats to the group's identity. As with ensuring individual security, laws help ensure group security, although laws can also be discriminatory, which is actually one source of intractable conflict.
Regional Security
Discussing regional security requires us to first define the extent of the "region." Since we have placed the regional beneath the national level in this hierarchy, we are speaking of a physical area within a nation, which could be a collection of provinces, cities, or states. If there were certain religious, national, or ethnic groups that dominated a region, we would still speak of their security at the group level. What is regional security, then?
The simplest concept of security at the regional level could be economic, implying protection of regional interests. Perhaps a regional association with, or ownership of, a valued resource could provoke desires for security, and the responsibility for protecting that security would rest on the region. For example, labor or trade unions perform this function. Other notions of security at this level could be to maintain a certain standard of living. In this realm, members of a regional group might want to protect themselves from mass immigration, which could occur due to the region's coveted resources. The region might seek to ensure its security by campaigning against this immigration. Threats to security are often cited here, usually connected to issues of lowered living standards. On a more subtle level, religious, national, or ethnic groups may shrewdly promote their interests under the guise of regional security, and may elevate their group security to a regional priority level.
National Security
Morton Deutsch talks about the importance of security at both the international and interpersonal levels.
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The national level of security is probably the most often examined and contentious definition of security. The nation-state often assumes the role of guarantor for individual security, group security, and perhaps regional security; for example, agricultural subsidies or steel tariffs are one way in which a nation-state protects a region within its boundaries from a foreign threat.
After ensuring individual, group, and regional security, how does the state define its own security? Lasso and Gonzalez state that "the entirety of conditions -- political, economic, military, social, and cultural -- necessary to guarantee the sovereignty, independence, and promotion of national interest..."[1] defines security. We can then ask what threatens those five conditions. Security from the military viewpoint is highly visible, and a nation will act when it is threatened militarily. Economic threats can also be simply defined, although domestic protectionism can often clash with international trade agreements signed by the same nation. A nation's claim that its protectionism helps ensure national economic security can cause international uproar. (For example, see the essay on Development and Conflict.)
Tension is introduced when a nation defines what in particular guarantees its political, socio-economic, and cultural security. For example, actions undertaken to protect cultures can easily be interpreted as discriminatory or racist. Cultural security is especially difficult to define and protect in heterogeneous, democratic societies such as the United States.
Socio-economic security can also assume controversial definitions and interpretations. Surely a rapidly aging population can threaten socio-economic security. A further question is what measures the state will undertake to solve the problem. Tension can again be introduced if the state or the society chooses to blame a specific group for the threat to socio-economic security. Here, security definitions are at odds since the state is protecting its own security by threatening a group's security.
Perhaps the most ambiguous aspect of security is that of political security, which may be very broadly defined. Often, a nation will react to threats to its political philosophies, as well as threats to its culture, society, or economy. The term "national security" has recently been used to justify "security" procedures within the United States as well as military action outside its borders. This widens the parameters for national security definitions, and implies a wide range of actions available to a nation.
Global Security
Global security is a relatively new concept, and conjures up images of organizations such as the United Nations. Global security, however, may be undermined by national security concerns; if one nation feels threatened by another, then global security cannot exist since members of the world are in disagreement. Global security is also undermined by negative judgment by one nation of another's philosophy of government. If nation A decides that nation B's governing methods are wrong, nation A will not submit to a global authority that allows nation B's methods to continue. Global security is thus a weak concept, since it assumes a supranational entity to whose judgment nations would yield in matters of disagreement. This is obviously a far-fetched goal, which is unlikely to be realized in the near future. As resources such as land, water, and oil are increasingly coveted by nations, global security has little chance to emerge as a durable concept in international relations.
The Security Dilemma
At the national and global level, providing security creates a dilemma. It is generally thought that security is provided with a strong military that can deter attack. Yet, the development of military strength can be seen as a threat by the other side, which then increases its own military investment. This, then, actually decreases both sides' security, rather than increasing it. Security is actually a positive-feedback system. The more security I feel, the more secure my opponent(s) will feel, because I won't have to arm myself against them. But the less secure I feel, the more I will arm, and the less secure my opponent will feel as well. This security dilemma is what fueled the Cold War, the nuclear arms race, and indeed, it is much of what is fueling the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians, Indians and Pakistanis and North and South Korea . (There are other factors in all of those conflicts as well, but security is a big issue.)[2]
Conclusion
The concept of security, on all levels, is related to basic concepts of human psychology. If threatened, people will react and take necessary defensive measures. At the individual level, one can sometimes ward off threats by exercising caution in his or her daily life. He or she may arrange additional security measures, such as alarm systems, weapons, or perhaps changing residences. This same type of reaction may occur on the group or regional level. On the national and global levels, more formal structures of defense and security agreements exist. Nations might activate defense systems to react to overt threats, but this can threaten the other side, thereby reducing security, rather than increasing it. Furthermore, they might cooperate to create security agreements such as NATO, which foster cooperation and collaborative defense and security measures in the face of a perceived threat.
[1] L.H. Lasso, G. Gonzalez, in B.M. Bagley, S.A. Quezada, Eds. Mexico in search of security, (University of Miami Press, 1993), 4.
[2] This paragraph was added by Heidi Burgess. It was not part of the author's original essay, but as editor, I took the liberty of adding it.
Use the following to cite this article:
Kanji, Omario. "Security." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: October 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/security/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Jones, Richard Wyn and Eli Stamnes. "Burundi: A Critical Security Perspective." , November 1, 2000
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/pcs/WJonesSt72PCS.htm.
This article argues for a new theoretical approach to security. Using Burundi as an example of how traditional security models have been inadequate in dealing with today's security realities, the author applies the Critical Security Studies (CSS) approach to Burundi as a means of illustrating how this model is better and more effective than traditional models.
Tanner, Fred. "Conflict Management and European Security: The Problem of Collective Solidarity." , October 21, 1998
Available at: http://www.isn.ethz.ch/3isf/Online_Publications/WS4/Tanner.htm.
This article discusses the new character of European security. The author discusses developments such as, non-military risks and ambiguous threat scenarios from areas adjacent to Western Europe (Caucasus, Central Asia, the Balkans and the Mediterranean region, including North Africa and the Middle East), as contributors to the new dynamics of European Security. This paper argues that institutional responses to these risks and threats will be hampered by the increasing diversity of national interests of member states.
Nathan, Laurie. "Good Governance, Security and Disarmament: The Challenge of Demilitarisation in Africa." , August 1998
Available at: Click here for more info.
The first part of the paper presents a critique of the conventional approach to security which relies on military force, and traverses the well-known alternative perspective which motivates demilitarisation on the grounds that a positive relationship exists between disarmament, development and security. The second part of the paper suggests that in the context of intra-state crises, the challenge of demilitarisation is better understood in terms of the relationship between good governance, security and disarmament.
Bajpai, Kanti. "Human Security: Concept and Measurement." , August 2000
Available at: http://www.nd.edu/~krocinst/ocpapers/op_19_1.PDF.
This article explores the concept of human security. It examines the development of this concept, as well as the institutions and indexes used to quantify it. It contrasts human security with the neo-realist concept of global security.
Paris, Roland. Human Security: Paradigm Shift or Hot Air?. The MIT Press.
Available at: http://mitpress.mit.edu/journals/pdf/isec_26_02_87_0.pdf.
This article looks at the expanding concept of security, from states and global security to human security, in international politics.
International Relations and Security Network (ISN).
Available at: http://www.isn.ethz.ch/.
This is the home page of the International Relations and Security Network (ISN). The site serves as a gateway to a broad array of information regarding international security issues including research and analytical publications, current events, and information on conferences and seminars.
Pierre, Andrew J. NATO at Fifty: New Challenges, Future Uncertainties. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990322.html.
Beneath the celebratory rhetoric at NATO's Fiftieth Anniversary Summit, lies a host of unanswered questions about the future of the Atlantic Alliance. This report addresses questions such as: What are the prospects for continued enlargement and by what benchmarks should the process move ahead? Is NATO being transformed into an institution for crisis management and peace support missions? Under which legal mandate will they operate and how "global" should it become? Is NATO prepared to deal with the threat of weapons of mass destruction? What roles should the European Union and the OSCE play in the future European political and security architecture?
Rogers, Paul F. "Politics in the Next 50 Years: The Changing Nature of International Conflict." , October 2000
Available at: http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/peace/tmp/publications/papers/psp1.pdf.
This paper seeks to examine the underlying factors that will influence international security in the coming decades. In contrast to the Cold War era, it will be argued that two fundamental issues will largely determine the evolution of conflict - the widening socio-economic polarization and problems of environmental constrains.
Nelson, Daniel N. "Post Communist Insecurity." , 2000
Available at: http://stockholm.usembassy.gov/bsconf/2000/nelson1.html.
This paper analyzes the question of whether more democracy necessarily translates into more security, in the post-Cold War world.
Gaseyger, Curt. "Towards the 21st Century: Trends in Post-Cold War International Security Policy." , July 1998
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses the notion of "international security" in the context of the larger global community. Because the sense of "security commonality" is still underdeveloped worldwide, if progress towards a wider and more widely shared concept of international security is to occur, the global community will have to tackle three very demanding tasks at the same time: first, it will have to cope with the legacies of the preceding generations; second, it will have to decide who the responsible actors on the world stage will or should be; and, finally, it will have to promote and strengthen those institutions that are not only essential to prevent the kind of wars that have bedeviled the twentieth century but also assure its own survival in the next.
Offline (Print) Sources
Goodby, James. "Can Collective Security Work?: Collective Security in Europe After the Cold War." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
This chapter analyzes the concept of collective security as it has played out in Europe since the Cold War, focusing particularly on its strategic strengths in terms of dealing with intrastate conflicts. Click here for more info.
Burke, Anthony. "Caught Between National and Human Security: Knowledge and Power in Post-Crisis Asia." Pacifica Review 13:3, October 1, 2001.
"Since the Asian political and economic crisis, traditional concepts and practices of security have come under increasing question. However, there is substantial political and institutional resistance to rethinking national security in favour of human security. This essay addresses recent proposals for a 'reconciliation' of traditional and human security and, though it sees some value in doing so, it also argues that there are important political and conceptual reasons why this may not be possible, or desirable. Crucial here is the way both Asian and Western security policies have combined external defence with repressive approaches to internal security and national integrity. By way of an analysis of the difficulties in transforming security practices in post-Soeharto Indonesia, the essay concludes that operationalizing human security will require a serious commitment to reforming security doctrines, pursuing long-term conflict resolution, and people-centered change in the rules and structure of the global economic system." Abstract
Collective Security Beyond the Cold War. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, April 1, 1994.
The book argues both for and against collective security as a concept and in practical application. It is broken into three sections: theoretical perspectives; historical perspectives; and contemporary applications.
Evans, Gareth G. Cooperating for Peace: The Global Agenda for the 1990's and Beyond. Paul & Co. Publishing Consortium, February 1994.
This work analyses contemporary security problems facing the international community, and suggests a strategy for responding to such problems which emphasizes prevention, peace building, and cooperative security. The role of the United Nations in securing peace is discussed throughout.
Click here for more info.
Jervis, Robert. "Cooperation Under the Security Dilemma." World Politics 30:2, 1978.
"International anarchy and the resulting security dilemma (i.e., policies which increase one state's security tend to decrease that of others) make it difficult for states to realize their common interests. Two approaches are used to show when and why this dilemma operates less strongly and cooperation is more likely. First, the model of the Prisoner's Dilemma is used to demonstrate that cooperation is more likely when the costs of being exploited and the gains of exploiting others are low, when the gains from mutual cooperation and the costs of mutual noncooperation are high, and when each side expects the other to cooperate. Second, the security dilemma is ameliorated when the defense has the advantage over the offense and when defensive postures differ from offensive ones. These two variables, which can generate four possible security worlds, are influenced by geography and technology." --Abstract
Gleditsch, Nils. "Environmental Change, Security and Conflict." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, July 1, 2001.
This chapter looks at the expanding notion of security in international politics to include common and human security, with issues spanning the realms of political, economic and social, cultural and environmental security.
Cha, Victor D. "Globalization and the Study of International Security." Journal of Peace Research 37:3, May 1, 2000.
"This essay explores how the processes of globalization have fundamentally changed the way we think about security. It argues that non-physical security, diversification of threats, and the salience of identity are key effects of globalization in the security realm." --Sage Publications Click here for more info.
Yost, David S. NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security. Herndon, VA: United States Institute of Peace Press, November 1999.
NATO Transformed provides a comprehensive survey and analysis
of the current debate on the alliance's enlargement and its new
cooperative security institutions, including the Partnership for
Peace and the special consultative forums with Russia and
Ukraine, and the demands of crisis management and
peacekeeping operations beyond NATO territory.
Boulding, Elise, ed. New Agendas for Peace Research: Conflict and Security Reexamined. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, February 1992.
New Agendas for Peace Research examines issues of global conflict and security in the post-Cold War era. This collection of articles reexamines traditional concepts of security, and describes new approaches to national and international conflict resolution. Click here for more info.
Chalk, Peter. Non-Military Security and Global Order: The Impact of Extremism, Violence and Chaos on National and International Security. Palgrave Macmillan, December 2000.
"The book examines the evolving nature of national and international security in the post-Cold War era, focusing on non-military threat potentials and how these may best countered. Six specific issues are discussed: terrorism, the heroin and cocaine trade, privacy, environmental degradation, the spread of disease and uncontrolled migration. The book concludes that greater national coordination, inter-agency cooperation and international collaboration is needed if these problems are going to be effectively dealt with." -Amazon
Steinbruner, John D. Principles of Global Security. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institute Press, April 2000.
This work discusses how major societal changes, namely in information technology and the globalization of the economic system, may alter the practice of war or "international security". The work attempts to anticipate the major implications of these transformations for security policy and to stimulate productive thinking among policymakers seeking to reshape the legacies of the cold war with a new conceptualization of international security.
Adler, Emanuel and Michael Barnett. Security Communities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
"This book argues that community can exist at the international level, and that security politics is profoundly shaped by it, with states dwelling within an international community having the capacity to develop a specific disposition. By investigating the relationship between international community and the possibility for peaceful change, this book revisits the concept first pioneered by Karl Deutsch: "security communities". Leading scholars examine security communities in various historical and regional contexts: in places where they exist, where they are emerging, and where they are hardly detectable. Building on constructivist theory, the volume is an important contribution to international relations theory and security studies, attempting to understand the conjunction of transnational forces, state power and international organizations that can produce a security community." Click here for more info.
Theories of War and Peace: An International Security Reader. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, November 1, 1998.
This edited volume is comprised of essays that address questions surrounding the causes of war and how they can be prevented. The work includes essays by leading scholars, on recently developed theories on the causes and prevention of war. Click here for more info.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Hopmann, P. Terrance. Building Security in Post-Cold War Eurasia: The OSCE and U.S. Foreign Policy.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks31.pdf.
This is an extensive report on building security in post-Cold War Eurasia. It addresses issues of democratization, preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, post-conflict security building, evaluations of activities, and U.S. foreign policy.
Cilliers, Jakkie. "Building Security in Southern Africa: An Update on the Evolving Architecture." , November 1999
Available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/Monographs/No43/Contents.html.
This monograph provides an overview, update and cursory analysis of formal security relationships in Southern Africa. It traces the evolution of the former Front-Line States (FLS) alliance to the Organ on Politics, Defense and Security, including the Inter-State Defense and Security Committee (ISDSC) and the Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Co-operating Organization (SARPCCO). The final sections identify legal and practical challenges that will have to be overcome if the region is to progress toward the establishment of a co-operative security community.
Frederking, Brian. "Constructing Collective Security in Kosovo." , 2000
Available at: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/martin_archives/Kosovo.htm.
This article briefly discusses the constructivist approach to world politics and the importance of social rules. It distinguish between rules associated with security dilemmas, security communities, and collective security, and it shows how these distinctions help us understand the conflict in Kosovo, particularly Russia and China's reaction against it.
Mateeva, Anna. "Dagestan: Sustaining a Fragile Peace." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the maintenance of a fragile peace in Dagestan, which is a republic within the Russian federation. There are more than thirty distinct ethnic groups living in Dagestan and authorities are constantly trying to maintain the precarious sense of security that exists.
Pierre, Andrew. De-Balkanizing the Balkans: Security and Stability in Southeastern Europe. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990920.html.
This report focuses upon the future of Southeastern Europe as a region, following the Kosovo conflict. It is informed by visits to Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Austria during and just after the 78-day war. It looks at the important consequences of the conflict for the future of NATO and the European Union, and discusses the new Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe.
de Vrieze, Franklin. "Kosovo: Civil Society Awaits a Chance for Reconciliation." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses Kosovo's recovery from its violent political conflict, and the movement toward a democratic and stable society.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Home Page.
Available at: http://www.nato.int/.
NATO is an alliance between 19 countries from North America and Europe that are committed to fulfilling the goals of the North Atlantic Treaty of 1949. NATO is one of the world's key international alliances focused on the maintenance of international peace, security, and justice. The NATO Web site offers immediate access to information on NATO's policies and structures, official documents, press releases, speeches and publications and provides links to other relevant sites. The home page looks at key topics on NATO's current agenda and the latest developments relating to them.
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).
Available at: http://www.osce.org/.
The is the home page of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which is the largest regional security organization in the world with 55 participating States from Europe, Central Asia and North America. It is active in early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post-conflict rehabilitation. The website serves as a gateway to a range of information regarding the activities of the organization, including access to various OSCE publications.
Prendergast, John and David Smock. Putting Humpty Dumpty Together: Reconstructing Peace in the Congo. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990831.html.
This report examines the sources of instability in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), and the potential for creating stability. Three integral issues are addressed: a more equitable distribution of political and economic power throughout the Congo; a more effective counterinsurgency campaign against the non-state actors that continue to feed off the Congolese vacuum and destabilize neighboring countries; and a more coherent strategy for addressing the boiling cauldron called the Kivus, the eastern most region of the Congo.
van Nieuwkerk, Anthoni. "Regionalism into Globalism? War into Peace?: SADC and ECOWAS Compared." African Security Review Vol. 10, No 2 , 2001
Available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/10No2/Vannieuwkerk.html.
This article explores the experiences of two prominent subregional organizations in Southern and West Africa in regards to security and peacemaking, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC).
The Warsaw Pact.
Available at: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/soviet/warsaw.htm.
This page presents the text of the Warsaw Pact, an international security alliance among Eastern European nations signed on May 14, 1955. The pact was a "treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance between the People's Republic of Albania, the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Hungarian People's Republic, the German Democratic Republic, the Polish People's Republic, the Rumanian People's Republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Czechoslovak Republic. The pact lasted throughout the Cold War, but was dissolved in 1991, as a result of massive structural change following the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989.
United Nations Security Council.
Available at: http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/.
This is the home page of the United Nations Security Council, the world's preeminent international security organization. Through this site, one may access the text of security council resolutions, reports from the Secretary-General, mission reports, as well as a range of other information about the security council's activities and influence.
Lewis, David. "Uzbekistan: Authoritarianism and Conflict." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article profiles the shaky state of Uzbekistan, describing its authoritarian regime and the reasons why its methods are a threat to the security of central Asia.
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