What Human Needs Are
"[H]uman needs are a powerful source of explanation of human behavior and social interaction. All individuals have needs that they strive to satisfy, either by using the system[,] 'acting on the fringes[,]' or acting as a reformist or revolutionary. Given this condition, social systems must be responsive to individual needs, or be subject to instability and forced change (possibly through violence or conflict)." -- Coate and Rosati, "Preface," in The Power of Human Needs in World Society, ed. Roger A.Coate and Jerel A. Rosati, ix. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988.
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Humans need a number of essentials to survive. According to the renowned psychologist Abraham Maslow and the conflict scholar John Burton, these essentials go beyond just food, water, and shelter. They include both physical and non-physical elements needed for human growth and development, as well as all those things humans are innately driven to attain.
For Maslow, needs are hierarchical in nature. That is, each need has a specific ranking or order of obtainment. Maslow's needs pyramid starts with the basic items of food, water, and shelter. These are followed by the need for safety and security, then belonging or love, self-esteem, and finally, personal fulfillment.[1] Burton and other needs theorists who have adopted Maslow's ideas to conflict theory, however, perceive human needs in a different way -- as an emergent collection of human development essentials.[2] Furthermore, they contend needs do not have a hierarchical order. Rather, needs are sought simultaneously in an intense and relentless manner.[3] Needs theorists' list of human essentials include:
- Safety/Security -- the need for structure, predictability, stability, and freedom from fear and anxiety.
- Belongingness/Love -- the need to be accepted by others and to have strong personal ties with one's family, friends, and identity groups.
- Self-esteem -- the need to be recognized by oneself and others as strong, competent, and capable. It also includes the need to know that one has some effect on her/his environment.
- Personal fulfillment -- the need to reach one's potential in all areas of life.
- Identity -- goes beyond a psychological "sense of self." Burton and other human needs theorists define identity as a sense of self in relation to the outside world. Identity becomes a problem when one's identity is not recognized as legitimate, or when it is considered inferior or is threatened by others with different identifications.
- Cultural security -- is related to identity, the need for recognition of one's language, traditions, religion, cultural values, ideas, and concepts.
- Freedom -- is the condition of having no physical, political, or civil restraints; having the capacity to exercise choice in all aspects of one's life.
- Distributive justice -- is the need for the fair allocation of resources among all members of a community.
- Participation -- is the need to be able to actively partake in and influence civil society.
Why the Concept of Human Needs Matters
Additional insights into unmet human needs are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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Human needs theorists argue that one of the primary causes of protracted or intractable conflict is people's unyielding drive to meet their unmet needs on the individual, group, and societal level.[4] For example, the Palestinian conflict involves the unmet needs of identity and security. Countless Palestinians feel that their legitimate identity is being denied them, both personally and nationally. Numerous Israelis feel they have no security individually because of suicide bombings, nationally because their state is not recognized by many of their close neighbors, and culturally because anti-Semitism is growing worldwide. Israeli and Palestinian unmet needs directly and deeply affect all the other issues associated with this conflict. Consequently, if a resolution is to be found, the needs of Palestinian identity and Israeli security must be addressed and satisfied on all levels.
Arguments For the Human Needs Approach
Human needs theorists offer a new dimension to conflict theory. Their approach provides an important conceptual tool that not only connects and addresses human needs on all levels. Furthermore, it recognizes the existence of negotiable and nonnegotiable issues.[5] That is, needs theorists understand that needs, unlike interests, cannot be traded, suppressed, or bargained for.[6] Thus, the human needs approach makes a case for turning away from traditional negotiation models that do not take into account nonnegotiable issues. These include interest-based negotiation models that view conflict in terms of win-win or other consensus-based solutions, and conventional power models (primarily used in the field of negotiation and international relations) that construct conflict and conflict management in terms of factual and zero-sum game perspectives.[7]
The human needs approach, on the other hand, supports collaborative and multifaceted problem-solving models and related techniques, such as problem-solving workshops or an analytical problem-solving process. These models take into account the complexity of human life and the insistent nature of human needs.[8] Problem-solving approaches also analyze the fundamental sources of conflict, while maintaining a focus on fulfilling peoples' unmet needs. In addition, they involve the interested parties in finding and developing acceptable ways to meet the needs of all concerned.
Human needs theorists further understand that although needs cannot be compromised, they can be addressed in a generally win-win or positive-sum way.[9] An example of this win-win or positive sum process can be gleaned from the Kosovo conflict. When the Albanians obtained protective security, the Serbs also gained this protection, so both sides gained.[10]
Arguments Against the Human Needs Approach
However, many questions and uncertainties surround the human needs approach to solving conflicts. For instance, how can one define human needs? How can one know what needs are involved in conflict situations? How can one know what human needs are being met and unmet? Are human needs cultural or universal in nature? If they are cultural, is the analysis of human needs beneficial beyond a specific conflict? Are some needs inherently more important than others? If some needs are more important, should these be pursued first?
Other critics of the human needs approach assert that many conflicts involve both needs and interests. So, conflict resolution cannot come about by just meeting human needs. For example, when looking at the Palestinian/Israeli conflict, it is understood that both needs (identity, security, freedom) and interests (i.e., resource allocation, international boundaries) are involved. Consequently, even if the needs of both parties get met, the conflict will probably not be resolved. Resolution can only come about when both needs and interests are dealt with.[11]
Nevertheless, most scholars and practitioners agree that issues of identity, security, and recognition, are critical in many or even most intractable conflicts. They may not be the only issue, but they are one of the important issues that must be dealt with if an intractable conflict is to be transformed. Ignoring the underlying needs and just negotiating the interests may at times lead to a short-term settlement, but it rarely will lead to long-term resolution.
[1] Jay Rothman, Resolving Identity-Based Conflict in Nations, Organizations, and Communities (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1997)
[2] John Burton, Conflict Resolution and Prevention (New York: St. Martins Press, 1990)
[3] Jay Rothman, 1997
[4] Terrell A. Northrup, "The Dynamic of Identity in Personal and Social Conflict," in Intractable Conflicts and their Transformation, ed. Louis Kriesberg, Terrell A. Northrup and Stuart J. Thorson (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1989), 55-82.
[5] Roger A. Coate and Jerel A. Rosati, "Human Needs in World Society," in The Power of Human Needs in World Society, ed. Roger A. Coate and Jerel A. Rosati (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988), 1-20.
[6] David J. Carroll, Jerel A. Rosati, and Roger A. Coate, "Human Needs Realism: A Critical Assessment of the Power of Human Needs in World Society," in The Power of Human Needs in World Society, ed. Roger A. Coate and Jerel A. Rosati (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988), 257-274.
[7] ibid
[8] ibid
[9] Jay Rothman, 1997.
[10] "Kosovo Leaders Agree to Pact Against Violence," in PeaceWatch 6, no. 5. (August 2000): 1-3. Article also available on-line at http://www.usip.org/peacewatch/pdf/pw0800.pdf (accessed 11 February 2003); Internet.
[11] David J. Carroll, Jerel A. Rosati, and Roger A. Coate, 1988.
Use the following to cite this article:
Marker, Sandra. "Unmet Human Needs." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: August 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/human_needs/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Reimann, Cordula. All You Need is Love...and What About Gender? Engendering Burton's Human Needs Theory.
Available at: http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/confres/assets/ccr10.pdf.
There seems to be some general agreement among conflict resolution scholars that Burton's human needs theory has had a lasting impact on developing a theory of conflict resolution practice and the practice of problem-solving workshops. However, a feminist or gender-specific critique of Burton's theory has so far been missing. This paper aims to partly fill this analytical gap.
Glaser, Tanya. Analyzing and Resolving Class Conflict -- Summary.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10505/.
This is a summary of Richard E. Rubenstein's chapter, "Analyzing and Resolving Class Conflict," in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice edited by Dennis J.D. Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe. The chapter discusses the notion that contemporary conflict resolution focuses less on negotiation and interests, and more on human needs and the root causes of conflict.
Rubenstein, Richard E. "Basic Human Needs: The Next Steps in Theory Development." The Internation Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 , 2001
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/ijps/vol6_1/Rubenstein.htm.
The great promise of human needs theory, in Burton's view, was that it would provide a relatively objective basis, transcending local political and cultural differences, for understanding the sources of conflict, designing conflict resolution processes, and founding conflict analysis and resolution as an autonomous discipline. The importance of this ambitious project is now generally recognized by conflict theorists, whether they agree with Burton or not. This essay will suggest some ways in which the project has succeeded, some ways in which it has fallen short, and some possible avenues for further theory development.
Adan, Mohamud, Ruto Pkalya and Isabella Masinde. "Conflict in Northern Kenya: A Focus on the Internally Displaced Conflict Victims in Northern Kenya." Intermediate Technology Development Group, 2003.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This case study describes the nature of violent conflicts in the Northern districts of Kenya. It describes the causes and consequences attached to the conflicts, the actors involved and preventative measures that can be used to transform and prevent these violent episodes.
Burton, John W. "Conflict Resolution: The Human Dimension." International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 , 1998
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/ijps/vol3_1/burton.htm.
Burton describes Human Needs Theory explaining that needs, rather than interests, are often the root cause of long term conflicts.
Burton, John W. "Conflict Resolution: Towards Problem Solving." , December 1, 1997
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/pcs/burton.html.
Burton highlights the importance of looking at conflict and conflict resolution with a new lens. Conventional interest and power negotiation strategies do not address import non-negotiable factors, such as security and identity, therefore, Burton advocates for a new human needs theory and conflict resolution approach.
Glaser, Tanya. "Conflict: Practices in Management, Settlement and Resolution - Book Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10087/.
This summary outlines John Buron and Frank Dukes' book, Conflict: Practices in Management, Settlement and Resolution. The work describes different types of conflicts and different approaches to conflict management, matching the different types of conflict with the most appropriate management process.
Glaser, Tanya. "Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution--Book Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium, 1900.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10088/.
This summary of Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution, edited by John Burton and Frank Dukes, provides an overview of the essays that make up the work. The essays include both classic texts and contemporary contributions to the field of conflict resolution. The book is intended to provide the general reader with a "start-up library" on the subject of conflict and conflict resolution.
Conflict: Resolution and Provention--Book Summary. Centre for Conflict Resolution, Univ of Cape Town, South Africa.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10089/.
This summary of Conflict: Resolution and Provention, by John Burton, gives a good overview of the book. The book offers an historical and theoretical overview of approaches to conflict resolution, emphasizing a problem-solving approach to conflict resolution and the need for conflict prevention (provention).
Glaser, Tanya and Conflict Research Consortium Staff. "From Confrontation to Cooperation: Resolving Ethnic and Regional Conflict--Book Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10501/.
This summary of From Confrontation to Cooperation, by Jay Rothman, provides a good overview of the book, which presents a new conceptual framework for understanding and resolving protracted ethnic conflicts.
Conflict Research Consortium Staff. International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice--Book Summary. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10034/.
This summary of International Conflict Resolution, edited by Edward Azar and John Burton, provides a good overview of the book. The book discusses alternative approaches to the realist view of international relations, particularly the problem solving approach to international conflicts.
The Propagation of Peace. 2003.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=124.
An interview with A. T. Ariyaratne, Mary Robinson, and William Ury. "Peace isn't just an absence of war," says Mary Robinson, former U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights and former Irish president. She joins Ari Ariyaratne, known as the Gandhi of our time,to discuss fulfilling basic human needs and rights so the peace enjoyed by 90% of humanity can be extended to the other 10% still ravaged by wars.
Offline (Print) Sources
Burton, John W. "Conflict Resolution as a political philosophy." In Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application. Edited by der Merwe, Hugo van and Dennis J.D. Sandole, eds. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1993.
The author looks at new techniques have that been developed in dispute managment in recent years. Conflict resolution has not received as much attention though. It is capable of dealing with both domestic and international conflicts, as well as in operating in different economic and political systems. But these are not the main tasks of conflict resolution. The major promise of it is conflict provention. Both goals promote conditions for peaceful transformation of the societies toward social harmony.
Click here for more info.
Burton, John W. and E. Frank Dukes. Conflict: Practices in Management, Settlement, and Resolution . New York: St. Martin's Press, October 1990.
This book explains why the problem solving approach is the most appropriate technique for resolving conflicts with human needs issues. Click here for more info.
Dukes, E. Frank and John W. Burton, eds. Conflict: Readings in Management and Resolution. New York: St. Martin's Press, October 1990.
This book is a collection of essays intended to provide an introduction to and overview of the theoretical foundations of the field of conflict resolution. These essays include both classic texts and contemporary human needs theories. Click here for more info.
Burton, John W. Conflict: Resolution and Provention. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, Inc., July 1990.
The author suggests that protracted conflict often arises out of unmet human needs. Conflict provention seeks to address the underlying systemic causes of conflict rather than merely dealing with its symptoms. It suggests that the best way to deal with serious social problems is to alter the structures of the social environments that give rise to these problems. Click here for more info.
Azar, Edward E. and John W. Burton, eds. International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, April 1986.
This edited volume discusses how the problem solving approach to international conflicts is a better way of dealing with conflicts that involve human needs issues such as identity and security. Click here for more info.
International Dimensions of Internal Conflict. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996.
The first part of the book details the causes of inter-group conflict. It finds that human needs such as identity and security are integral to understanding inter-group conflicts.
Rothman, Jay. Resolving Identity-Based Conflict in Nations, Organizations, and Communities. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, June 1997.
This book discusses identity-based conflict in terms of theory and practice, with Rothman outlining a four-phase model of conflict; antagonism, resonance, invention, and action. The work offers possible avenues for transforming a wide array of conflict situations including those involving unmet human needs. Click here for more info.
Fisher, Ronald J. "Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation." In Conflict Resolution: Dynamics, Process and Structure. Edited by Jeong, Ho-Won, ed. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999.
This article discusses the notion that many intractable conflicts are resistant to resolution because traditional approaches to resolving them do not address basic human needs. The author argues that the frustration of things like the need for security, identity, recogntition, participation, and equity, are key underlying causes of protracted conflict. The author goes on to discuss new and innovative ways of approaching difficult ethnopolitical conflicts, namely a technique called Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR).
Northrup, Terrell A. "The Dynamic of Identity in Personal and Social Conflict." Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation , October 1989.
This essay argues that the human need, identity, is always an important factor to consider when examining conflict causes. Threats to a person's or to a peoples' identity can cause conflict or contribute to its intractability. The essay gives a definition and a thorough analysis of the concept of identity. Click here for more info.
Burton, John W. Violence Explained: The Sources of Conflict, Violence and Crime and Their Prevention. New York: Manchester University Press, July 1997.
John Burton argues that one of the main sources of conflict and violence is the denial of human needs. He examines the adversarial institutions of society leadership, legislatures, the work place, the legal system and the international relations system, and considers what each would be like if it was designed to solve basic human needs problems.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Utterwulghe, Steve. "Rwanda's Protracted Social Conflict: Considering the Subjective Perspective in Conflict Resolution Strategies." Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Vol. 2, No. 3 ,
Available at: http://trinstitute.org/ojpcr/2_3utter.htm.
The author demonstrates that the conflict in Rwanda is intractable because the causes are not only structural (e.g., poverty, overpopulation, land pressure) but also psycho-cultural (e.g., related to identity, 'false consciousness,' irrational myths, mistrust, and fear). However, he explains that the subjective perspective is not being considered in constructive conflict resolution strategies. Therefore, he makes clear that both structural and psycho-cultural issues must be addressed, if there is to be any type of conflict resolution or transformation to the Rwanda conflict.
Offline (Print) Sources
Rothman, Jay. From Confrontation to Cooperation: Resolving Ethnic and Regional Conflict. London: Sage Publications, November 1992.
From Confrontation to Cooperation presents a new conceptual framework for understanding and resolving protracted ethnic conflicts, especially those involving human needs issues of identity and security. Click here for more info.
Gurr, Ted Robert. Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, October 1997.
This book analyzes ethnopolitical conflict in all regions of the world. It provides a comprehensive survey of more than 200 politically active communal groups, as well as in-depth assessments of ethnic tensions in Western societies, the former Soviet bloc, the Middle East and Africa. Through the group-by-group analysis the author attempts to explain why disadvantaged groups mobilize, and evaluates strategies that have successfully reduced ethnic tensions in the past, including autonomy, pluralism, and power sharing.
Azar, Edward E. and Rick Ayre. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict: Theory and Cases. Brookfield, VT: Dartmouth Press, April 1990.
This book focuses on protracted social conflicts and their management. Using case studies (Lebanon, Sri Lanka and the Falklands/Malvinas), it presents insights into how problem-solving forums can be used as effective tools in controlling and resolving identity, security and post-colonial disputes.
Starr, Harvey, ed. Understanding and Management of Global Violence: New Approaches to Theory and Research on Protracted Conflict. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, September 1999.
This book approaches social conflict through the study of "protracted conflict", or conflicts that are long-term and permeate all aspects of society. The work attempts to undertand contemporary global politics and conflict by looking across levels of analysis, from international, to transnational to domestic behavior. The approach is grounded in two-level analysis, focusing on the analysis of crisis and the nature of identity groups and enduring rivalries. Included are examinations of Israel, the Palestinians, and Lebanon; the Philippines, Nicaragua; Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan; and Northern Ireland. These case examples include discussion of human needs issues.
Cavanaugh, Kathleen A. "Understanding Protracted Social Conflict: A Basic Needs Approach." In Reconcilable Differences: Turning Points in Ethnopolitical Conflict. Edited by Irvin, Cynthia L. and Sean Byrne, eds. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, Inc., 2000.
According to a needs-based approach to conflict analysis and resolution, conflict is rooted in the denial of basic human needs such as identity-recognition and security. The author applies such an approach to the Northern Ireland case and suggests that unmet needs have contributed to the sociopolitical instability of the region since 1968.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Prelude to Kosovo: War and Peace in Bosnia and Croatia. Directed and/or Produced by: Michalczyk, John. 1999.
This film uses interviews from religious and political leaders in Serbia, Bosnia, and Croatia, to document how important the issues of identity and sovereignty were to the people living in the Balkan region. Click here for more info.
War and Peace . Directed and/or Produced by: Patwardhan, Anand. First Run Icarus Films. 2002.
This film highlights how the human need, or desire, for security by the people of India, ultimately led them to adopt a domestic policy that promoted the acquisition of nuclear weapons. This policy has triggered a worldwide increase in nuclear arms. Click here for more info.
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