"A diplomat is a person who can tell you to go to hell in such a way that you actually look forward to the trip." -Caskie Stinnett
"Diplomacy is to do and say the nastiest things in the nicest way." -Isaac Goldberg
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The art of diplomacy has a long-storied history. It is the practice of verbal discussion with the intent to influence, transmit a position or negotiate on a given issue or situation for a mutually acceptable outcome. It is often called an art because each situation requires a unique mixture of empathy, persuasion, bluster, and cajoling amongst other things. The sentiment expressed in the Stinnett and Goldberg quotes above is typical of how diplomacy has often been viewed. It has traditionally been a method of conducting interstate relations involving discussions and negotiations between heads of state or their representatives in order to advance national interests. As one may imagine, these efforts may not always be sincere. More broadly, however, diplomacy often involves efforts to keep channels of communication open between different sides of a dispute in the hopes that tension can be diffused and violence averted. Modern diplomacy is in many ways more complicated with intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) involved and the globalization of communication and transportation opening up new avenues for the conduct of diplomacy and helped new participants get involved.
Much of modern diplomacy continues to involve the interaction of state and/or official actors in what has become known as Track I diplomacy. These diplomats are acting in an official capacity with the authority and on behalf of the state or IGO they are representing. The entity they are representing may have a direct stake in the dispute or they may be acting as an intermediary. The goal, if a disputant, is to realize an outcome as favorable to one's side as possible. Third parties often become involved in the discussion in order to find ways through stalemates or to even get the parties talking in an effort at peacemaking. This being said, much of diplomacy is routine in order that issues do not reach crisis level.
There has been recognition that high-level official engagement is not always effective. Animosity and distrust may be too prevalent. The sides may question the motivations of representatives from third party states or from IGOs. In other instances, these third parties may lack a strategic interest or deem it too risky to get involved. Particularly in these circumstances, informal channels of communication can be effective at maintaining dialogue. These instances of Track II diplomacy are more subtle and personal, involving conflict resolution professionals from non-governmental organizations engaged in activity often through back channel measures. Track II diplomacy is important in maintaining support at the local level for negotiated agreements and terms to a peace settlement. Track II diplomats are also more often engaged "on the ground" in peacebuilding efforts in addition to their back channel peacemaking efforts.
"He who walks in the middle of the road gets hit from both sides." -George P. Shultz
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With increased internationalism and globalization, the sphere of participants in inter-communal conflicts is expanding. Participants include not only state actors but also the opposition parties and adversaries within the conflict itself, not to mention regional, multinational and non-governmental organizations. Third parties in Track I and Track II diplomacy can provide several different roles in conflicts and in their de-escalation. They can fill the role of supporter or mediator during the peacemaking process. A third party supporter or mediator can provide space for and initiate negotiations or discussions, gather information, help penetrate emotional barriers, help expand the negotiable pie, represent absent persons or views, provide resources, create pressure to reach an agreement, and generate support for an agreement. They do this with the intent to de-escalate conflicts, reach and sustain agreements and prevent future conflicts from occurring.
There is continued debate about the particular roles played by Track I and Track II actors in conflict management. Table 1 suggests some ways in which the two can be distinguished, although this division is not always clear-cut. Track I and Track II cooperation can be an issue. While it is generally recognized that both actors fill useful functions, boundary issues and other role-related issues continue to create tensions between the two tracks. In fact, the interests and actions of those involved in different levels of diplomacy may often be at cross-purposes. If done effectively, however, Track I and Track II diplomacy can be mutually reinforcing processes in conflict management. Each track is effective in unique ways and, despite some overlap in methods used by both tracks, the role of Track I and Track II diplomacy cannot be entirely filled by the other.
Table 1:
Distinguishing Track I and Track II Diplomacy | | | | | Track I | Track II | | Actors | Official Representatives,
Governments,
Multi-national Organizations,
Elites,
Adversarial Leaders | Unofficial Representatives,
Nongovernmental Organizations,
Regional and Local Leaders,
Grassroots Groups | | Methods | Positive or Negative Incentives,
Mediation,
Political or Economic Support | Back-channel Discussions,
Education Programs,
Workshops,
Grassroots Reconciliation | | Stages of Conflict | Present in all stages, but of particular importance during Peacemaking and Peacekeeping, when official actors determine cease-fires, peace accords, and terms to negotiated agreements. | Present in all stages, but of particular importance during Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding, when local and regional actors can detect early warning signs of violence, and can help foster personal reconciliation techniques between adversarial parties. |
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A number of practitioners and scholars have suggested that talking about Track I and Track II is, in fact, inadequate. What we often see is what Louise Diamond and John McDonald refer to as multi-track diplomacy where a whole range of actors with varying interests in the situation are involved at different levels to keep channels of communication open and hopefully de-escalate the conflict.
Use the following to cite this article:
Aiken, Jennifer and Eric Brahm. "Diplomacy." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: January 2005 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/Diplomacy--Intro/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Zartman, I. William. "Preventive Diplomacy: Setting the Stage."
http://wwics.si.edu/subsites/ccpdc/pubs/zart/ch1.htm.
"Unlike most studies of preventive diplomacy, this analysis will focus on preventive diplomacy by negotiation as practiced in different issue areas, in the belief that only if the differences as well as similarities among issues are recognized can these efforts benefit from each other. Also, unlike most studies of preventive diplomacy, this analysis emphasizes process, not simply outcomes or even tools, but the way in which tools are and can be used to achieve outcomes, in the belief that it is no use to identify the Promised Land if one does not know how to get there. This introduction will examine prevention, negotiation, and issues, in turn." - William Zartman
Track I vs. Track II Diplomacy.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This page offers a clear definition of diplomacy and outlines the main characteristics of both Track I and Track II diplomacy. The discussion attempts to clarify the role of each type of diplomacy, noting their differences and providing critiques of each type.
Unofficial Communication Channels / Citizen Diplomacy/ Multitrack Diplomacy. University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/treatment/citdip.htm.
In cases where official diplomats and formal representatives of the parties are unwilling or unable to communicate effectively, unofficial contact between informal representatives may provide a workable alternative. Originally formulated as "track two diplomacy" to be differentiated from, but supportive of, official or "track one" diplomacy, John McDonald and Louise Diamond suggested that there are actually nine tracks that all mutually reinforce each other in a peacebuilding system.
Offline (Print) Sources
Freeman, Charles W. Arts of Power: Statecraft and Diplomacy. Washington, DC: USIP Press, July 1, 1997.
In this comprehensive work, the author "describes the fundamental principles of the art of statecraft and the craft of diplomacy. The book draws on the author's years of experience as a practicing diplomat" as well as his broad knowledge of world history. Among the topics addressed in the book are "the role of intelligence, political ctions, cultural influence, economic meadures, and military power, as well as diplomatice stategy and tactics, negotiation, and the tasks and skills of diplomacy." --From back cover of book
Hopmann, P. Terrance. "Bargaining and Problem Solving: Two Perspectives on International Negotiation." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, July 1, 2001.
This chapter seeks to compare and clarify the theoretical perspectives of bargaining and problem-solving, as they relate to international negotiation. Each represents a different "ideal type" or model for approaching negotiation at the international level.
Putnam, Robert D. "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games." International Organization 42:3, 1998.
"Domestic politics and international relations are often inextricably entangled, but existing theories (particularly "state-centric" theories) do not adequately account for these linkages. When national leaders must win ratification (formal or informal) from their constituents for an international agreement, their negotiating behavior reflects the simultaneous imperatives of both a domestic political game and an international game. Using illustrations from Western economic summitry, the Panama Canal and Versailles Treaty negotiations, IMF stabilization programs, the European Community, and many other diplomatic contexts, this article offers a theory of ratification. It addresses the role of domestic preferences and coalitions, domestic political institutions and practices, the strategies and tactics of negotiators, uncertainty, the domestic reverberation of international pressures, and the interests of the chief negotiator. This theory of "two-level games" may also be applicable to many other political phenomena, such as dependency, legislative committees, and multiparty coalitions." --abstract
Berridge, Geoff. Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, May 3, 2002.
This work "provides an introduction to the origins and different 'modes' of diplomacy within the context of international politics, giving special attention to negotiation."
-From Amazon.com
Lund, Michael S. "Early Warning and Preventive Diplomacy." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
This chapter discusses the international movement toward responding to early warnings of conflict and attempting preventive diplomacy before conflicts escalate to severely violent levels. The author provides definitions of various key terms including preventive diplomacy and conflict prevention.
George, Alexander L. Forceful Persuasion: Coercive Diplomacy as an Alternative to War. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1991.
George defines coercive diplomacy as the purposeful combination of threats and diplomacy aimed at persuad[ing] an opponent to stop or undo his effort to alter a status quo situation that itself endangers the peace or "already involves naked military aggression" (p. xi). This book provides a theoretical framework for and lays out the practical implications of using this strategy. He then looks at how the use of coercive diplomacy by the United States has played out in historical cases.
McDonald, John W. "Further Exploration of Track Two Diplomacy." In Timing the De-Escalation of International Conflicts. Edited by Thorson, Stuart J. and Louis Kriesberg, eds. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991.
Most armed conflicts in today's world are not wars between nations but rather intra-state conflicts, conflicts within national boundaries. In 1987, for example, only four of the world's major armed conflicts were cross-border wars; 32 of the 36 major armed conflicts fought in 1987 were civil wars or intra-state wars of independence. Based on these facts, the author argues that track II or citizen diplomacy should be utilized more often in the case of intra-state conflicts. This is primarily because traditional state-to-state diplomacy and established international institutions have not been effective in resolving intra-state conflicts. Click here for more info.
Diamond, Louise and John W. McDonald. Multi-Track Diplomacy: A Systems Approach to Peace. Kumarian Press, April 1, 1996.
This book identifies and documents nine tracks in the Multi-track diplomacy system: government; professional conflict resolution; business; private citizen; research, training, and education; activism; religion; funding; and media or public opinion. For each track the authors examine the purpose, culture, structure, activities, and place in the field of that track.
Saunders, Harold H. "Prenegotiation and Circum-Negotiation: Arenas of the Multilevel Peace Process." Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict , 2001.
"Saunders argues that the peace process includes more than just official negotiations. 'Peace requires a process of building constructive relationships in a civil society not just negotiating, signing, and ratifying a formal agreement.'[p. 420] Saunders describes the different arenas in which the peace process is pursued, and describes the basic phases of the peace process." Click here for more info.
Lund, Michael S. Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, April 1, 1996.
"In this balanced and comprehensive analysis--the first of its kind--Michael Lund defines early warning and preventive diplomacy; assesses, after reviewing several recent preventive efforts, who does it, what methods work, and why; and suggests how multilateral and national entities (especially the U.S. government) can overcome operational challenges to effective preventive action. The book concludes by sketching the outlines of a more systematic, global preventive regime, one that draws on the strengths of individual states, the United Nations, regional organizations, and NGOs."
Preventive Diplomacy: Stopping Wars Before They Start. New York: Routledge, August 2000.
"Revised edition of the influential 1996 publication in which 20 leading diplomats and individuals explore and assess the impacts of military interventions and economic sanctions from economic, political and humanitarian perspectives. Many of the issues faced in the symposium sponsored by the Center for International Health and Cooperation are more commonly pushed under carpets. This cross-disciplinary approach demonstrates how, when new insights are applied to international tensions and disasters, they may bring new hope. Should be of interest to those concerned with diplomacy and security issues. Referenced and indexed."
Langhorne, Richard and Keith A. Hamilton. The Practice of Diplomacy: Its Evolution, Theory and Administration. New York: Routledge, March 1995.
"In the unstable international conditions of the post-Cold War world, the role of diplomacy has become increasingly important with the greater complexity of relationships between international power centres. This book tracks the historical development of diplomatic relations and methods from the earliest period up to their current transformations in the late 20th century, showing how they have changed to encompass new technological advances and the needs of modern international environments. The book brings the history of diplomacy fully up-to-date, exploring altered perspectives and newly emerging practices resulting from United Nations diplomacy and recent political developments in eastern and central Europe, including the former Yugoslavia."
-From Amazon.com
Pereira, Bernard Futscher and Jose Calvet de Malgahaes. The Pure Concept of Diplomacy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, October 17, 1988.
"This is a pioneer theoretical study of diplomacy from the viewpoint of political science. It defines diplomacy precisely, and distinguishes it from the other institutions with which it is often confused. The work commences with a historical analysis of diplomacy through the ages in order to afford a theoretical description of the concept. After defining the term, Calvet de Magalhaes goes on to examine the value of current ideas concerning diplomacy. He also describes deviations from normal diplomatic practice, such as 'backchannel diplomacy,' 'combat diplomacy,' and espionage. The work concludes with a detailed precis of the different elements of diplomatic activity."
-From Amazon.com
George, Alexander L. "The Role of Force in Diplomacy: A Continuing Dilemma for U.S. Foreign Policy." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 2001.
This chapter discusses the potential pros and cons of using force or threats of force in order to achieve foreign policy objectives. George attemtps to answer the question: "Under what conditions and how can military force and threats of force be used effectively to accomplish different types of foreign policy objectives at an acceptable level of risk and cost?"
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Weissman, Stephen R. Preventing Genocide in Burundi: Lessons from International Diplomacy. United States Institute of Peace (USIP).
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/weissm22/weissm22.html.
This USIP Peaceworks report, examines international responses, namely diplomatic ones, to the violent ethnic conflict in Burundi and develops valuable lessons for peacemaking in Burundi and other areas of genocidal conflict.
Creative Associates International. Special Envoys.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This page provides background on the role of special envoys in conflict prevention and resolution. It contains examples from the UN Special Representative to Burundi (1993-1995) and OAU Envoy to Congo, 1993.
Offline (Print) Sources
Touval, Saadia. "Case Study: Lessons of Preventative Diplomacy in Yugoslavia." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler, Chester A. Crocker and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
In this chapter, Touval describes the failure of diplomatic attempts to prevent war and maintain a unified Yugoslavia. He argues that these efforts at preventative diplomacy lacked clarity and credibility. Based on his analysis of the Yugoslavian case, Touval draws five lessons for future attempts at preventative diplomacy. Click here for more info.
Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy, Reprint Edition. New York: Touchstone Books, April 1, 1995.
Drawing on his experience as U.S. National Security Advisor and Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger discusses the art of diplomacy and America's approach to foreign affairs.
Cohen, Raymond. Negotiating Across Cultures: International Communication in an Interdependent World, Revised Edition. Washington, DC : USIP Press, December 1, 1997.
Cohen argues that cross-cultural differences have significant effects on diplomatic negotiations. Failure to understand and appreciate these differences can have serious consequences for negotiations. In this text Cohen explores the role cultural differences play in shaping the content, process, and style of negotiations.
Quandt, William B. Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967, Revised Edition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, March 5, 2001.
"This new edition of this classic study of American diplomacy in the Middle East brings the story up to date through the crucial Israeli election of May 1999. Two new chapters on the Clinton Administration have been added. The text has been streamlined, revised, and new sources have been consulted, resulting in a compact, authoritative and timely account." -From Amazon.com
Baker, James and Thomas de Frank. The Politics of Diplomacy: Revolution, War, and Peace, 1989-1992 . New York, NY: Putnam, September 1995.
"Baker, who served in senior government positions under Presidents Ford, Reagan, and Bush, offers an inside account of his years as Secretary of State during a time period that saw the collapse of communism and the Soviet Union, the reunification of Germany, repression in China's Tiananmen Square, freedom in South Africa, the Gulf War, and Arab and Israeli peace talks. He provides intimate portraits of world leaders and insights on the art and politics of diplomacy."
-From Book News, Inc.
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